LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


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HOBOKEN,  NEW  JERSEY. 


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A  HISTORY 


OF 


THE  UNITED  STATES 


OF   AMERICA 


INCLUDING  SOME  IMPORTANT  FACTS  MOSTLY  OMITTED 
IN  THE  SMALLER  HISTORIES 


DESIGNED   FOR   GENERAL    READING  AND   FOR    ACADEMIES 


' 

JOSIAH    W.    LF^E 


"/>  I  f 

SECOND   EDITION,  REVISED,  WITH    MAPS.  \J       '' 


PHILADELPHIA: 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT   &    CO. 
i  8;  8. 


Copyright,  1877,  by  JOSIAH  W.  LEEDS. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

PAGH 

Purposes  of  Historical  Study 1 1 

Physical  Aspect  of  the  Country 13 

Iceland  and  the  Northmen.     Madoc.     The  Zeni 14 

CHAPTER    II. 
THE   DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA. 

The  Way  Prepared 19 

Columbus         .«         i         .........       21 

CHAPTER    III. 

THE  ABORIGINES. 
The  Mound  Builders        ..........       29 

The  North  American  Indians  .         .         .         .  -  .         .         .  34 

CHAPTER    IV. 
ENGLISH   AND   FRENCH   DISCOVERIES   IN  AMERICA. 

The  English.     John  and  Sebastian  Cabot 41 

Discoveries  by  the  French 44 

CHAPTER    V. 

THE  SPANIARDS— THEIR  CRUEL  TREASURE-HUNT. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  the  Invader  of  Florida  .......  51 

Discoveries  and  Conquests  from  Mexico  to  Peru     .....  53 

The  Florida  Interior         ..........  57 

Discovery  of  the  Mississippi 63 

CHAPTER    VI. 

THE   HUGUENOTS— THEIR   MISTAKES  AND  MISFORTUNES. 
Coligny,  the  Huguenot  Chief.     Villegagnon   .         .         .         ...       67 

Ribault  and  Laudonniere 70 

Ruin  and  Revenge  —  Menendez  and  De  Gourgues 75 

3 


4  CONTENTS. 

J  CHAPTER    VII. 

ENGLISH  VOYAGES  AND   FIRST  SETTLEMENTS. 

Martin  Frobisher.     Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert      ......  79 

Sir  Francis  Drake     ..........  g2 

Raleigh  and  the  Roanoke  Settlements      .....  84 

Voyages  of  Gosnold,  Pring,  Weymouth  and  others         ....  89 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

COLONIZATION   OF  VIRGINIA. 

Jamestown,  the  first  Permanent  English  Settlement         ....  91 

Captain  John  Smith          ..........  93 

The  Colony  under  the  Government  of  the  Virginia  Company         .         .  97 

Slavery  in  Virginia  ...........  IO3 

'CHAPTER  ix. 

THE   FRENCH  OCCUPATION  OF  CANADA. 

De  Monts.     The  Settlement  of  Port  Royal     ......  1  06 

Samuel  de  Champlain,  the  Founder  of  Quebec       .....  no 

The  Jesuit  Missions  ...........  n^ 

CHAPTER    X. 

THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  NEW  NETHERLAND. 
The  Trading-post  at  New  Amsterdam      .......     ng 


The  Dutch  Directors  and  the  Patroons    ......  121 

New  Sweden    .........  124 

William  Kieft.     Wars  with  the  Indians  .......  126 

Peter  Stuyvesant.     New  Netherland  resigned  to  the  English  .        .         .  131 

CHAPTER    XL 

THE  NEW  ENGLAND  COLONIES. 

The  Pilgrim  Fathers.     New  Plymouth     .......  135 

The  Puritans  of  Massachusetts  Bay          .......  i39 

New  Hampshire  and  Maine     .........  I4I 

Roger  Williams,  the  Founder  of  Rhode  Island       .....  143 

The  Connecticut  and  New  Haven  Settlements         .....  146 

PequodWar    ............  I48 

The  United  Colonies  of  New  England     .......  j^o 

The  Persecution  of  the  Quakers       ........  z 


CONTENTS.  5 

CHAPTER    XII. 

MARYLAND.      PROGRESS   OF  THE  VIRGINIA   COLONY. 

PAGE 

Lord  Baltimore,  the  Founder  of  Maryland 161 

Indian  Troubles  in  Virginia.     Clayborne,  of  Kent  Island        ,         .         .  164 

Maryland  during  the  Protectorate,  and  under  Charles  II.        ...  166 

The  Administration  of  Governor  Berkeley,  of  Virginia  ....  168 

Bacon's  Rebellion.     Lord  Culpeper I71 

CHAPTER    XIII. 

CAROLINA. 

The  Palatine  Proprietors  and  their  Model  Constitution  ....  176 

The  Quaker  Settlements  of  Albemarle 179 

The  Settlers  at  Charleston 181 

CHAPTER    XIV. 
NEW  YORK.      NEW  JERSEY.      NEW   FRANCE. 

The  Government  of  the  Duke  of  York 185 

East  and  West  New  Jersey 187 

Explorations  of  the  French  Jesuits.     Marquette 190 

La  Salle.     An  Iroquois  War 193 

CHAPTER    XV. 

NEW   ENGLAND   UNDER  CHARLES   II.  AND  JAMES   II. 

Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island •"      .  197 

John  Eliot.     The  Praying  Indians  of  Massachusetts       ....  200 

King  Philip's  War 202 

The  Colonial  Charters  demanded.     Andros,  Governor  of  New  England  208 

CHAPTER    XVI. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

William  Penn  and  the  Royal  Grant 210 

The  Great  Treaty  at  Shackamaxon 212 

Philadelphia  Founded      ..........  215 

Disagreements  in  Council         .........  218 

CHAPTER    XVII. 

THE  COLONIES   UNDER  WILLIAM  AND   MARY. 
The  English  and  French  Colonies  at  War       .         .         .         .         .         .221 


6  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Sir  William  Phipps,  Fletcher,  Bellamont 223 

The  Salem  Witchcraft 226 

Maryland  and  Virginia 228 

John  Archdale,  of  Carolina 230 

CHAPTER    XVIII. 

THE  WAR  IN  THE  REIGN  OF  QUEEN  ANNE. 

Louisiana  settled  by  the  French 234 

Barbarities  of  the  War  in  New  England 235 

The  Tuscaroras.     Slave  Laws 238 

CHAPTER    XIX. 

GEORGE  I.      A   PERIOD   OF  FINANCIERING. 

Piracy  suppressed.     The  Mississippi  Bubble   ......  241 

Banks  and  Bills  of  Credit 243 

War  with  the  Norridgewocks  and  other  Tribes        .....  245 

CHAPTER    XX. 

GEORGE  II.      FIRST  PERIOD. 

The  French  War  with  the  Natchez  and  Chickasaws        ....  249 
The  Assiento  and  the  African  Traders     .        .        .        .        .        .        .251 

Georgia  founded  by  Oglethorpe 253 

Rum  and  Slavery.     The  Spaniards  and  Indians      .....  256 

The  Walking  Purchase.     Brainerd  ........  260 

CHAPTER    XXI. 

GEORGE   II.      SECOND   PERIOD. 

Third  War  with  Canada.     Louisburg  captured       .....  265 

The  Southern  Provinces.  Slaves  and  Redemptioners.  The  Molasses  Act  268 

Fourth  Intercolonial  War.     Braddock's  Defeat 273 

The  French  Neutrals  of  Acadie 275 

The  Marquis  of  Montcalm       .........  277 

David  Zeisberger,  the  Moravian       ........  280 

Canada  conquered  from  the  French          .......  285 

CHAPTER    XXII. 

GEORGE  III.      COLONIAL   DISCONTENT. 

The  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac 289 


CONTENTS.  7 

PAGE 

Colonial  Taxation.     The  Stamp  Act        . 290 

The  Tax  on  Tea.     Boston  Port  Bill 292 

Occurrences  in  several  of  the  Colonies 294 

Negotiations  of  Franklin  in  England .297 

CHAPTER    XXIII. 

THE  AMERICAN   REVOLUTION. 

1775.  Lexington  and  Bunker  Hill.     Canada  Campaign         ...  300 

1776.  The  Sieges  of  Boston,  Charleston  and  New  York.     Declaration 

of  Independence 302 

1777.  Burgoyne's  Surrender.     Philadelphia  captured  by  the  British      .  306 

1778.  The  French  Alliance.     Massacre  of  Wyoming     .        .        .        .  3°8 

1779.  Georgia  Campaign.     Deeds  of  Reprisal 311 

1780.  The  British  in  South  Carolina.     Arnold  and  Andre"      .        .        .  3J3 
1781-83.     Cornwallis  surrenders  at  Yorktown.     Peace  declared     .        .  315 

CHAPTER    XXIV. 

THE  CONSTITUTION  FORMED.      ADMINISTRATION   OF  WASHINGTON. 

Financial  depression.    Shays'  Rebellion  .        .        .        .        .        .        .  3T9 

The  Constitution.    Washington  elected  first  President    .         .        .         .323 

The  Miami  War.     The  Whiskey  Insurrection 332 

CHAPTER    XXV. 

ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  ADAMS   AND  JEFFERSON. 

John  Adams,  second  President.     Disputes  with  France  ....  337 
Thomas  Jefferson,  third  President.    Acquisition  of  Louisiana.    A  Duel. 

War  with  Tripoli 34° 

Machinations  of  Burr.     Berlin  and  Milan  Decrees.     The  Embargo  Act  345 

The  Right  of  Search 348 

CHAPTER    XXVI. 

WAR  WITH   ENGLAND   DURING  MADISON'S  ADMINISTRATION. 

Negotiations  with  England.     Tecumseh 352 

1812.  War  declared.     Detroit  and  Niagara.    Opposition  to  the  War     .  355 

1813.  Operations  on  the  Canada  Frontier.  Red  Jacket  and  Cornplanter. 

Creek  War 358 

1814.  Battles  near  Niagara  and   Plattsburg.     Washington  City  taken. 

Hartford  Convention 363 

Battle  of  New  Orleans  and  end  of  the  War 367 


8  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    XXVII. 

PRESIDENCIES   OF  MONROE  AND  J.   Q.   ADAMS. 

Seminole  War.     Florida  ceded  by  Spain 371 

The  Missouri  Compromise.     The  Slave  Trade  prohibited       .         .         .  374 

J.  Q.  Adams,  sixth  President.     Internal  Improvements  ....  380 

Difficulties  with  Georgia  and  the  Creeks.    A  New  Tariff         .        .        .  384 

CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

JACKSON'S  ADMINISTRATION.    VAN  BUREN  AND  HARRISON. 

Removal  of  the  Cherokees 387 

Nullification.     The  Black  Hawk  and  second  Seminole  Wars.     Bank 

Troubles 389 

Financial  Troubles  during  Van  Buren's  Administration.     Harrison        .     393 

CHAPTER    XXIX. 

ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  TYLER  AND   POLK.      THE  MEXICAN  WAR. 
The  North-eastern  Boundary.     Annexation  of  Texas      ....     396 
War  with  Mexico.     Annexation  of  California  and  New  Mexico      .         .     400 

CHAPTER    XXX. 

TAYLOR.      FILLMORE.      PIERCE.      BUCHANAN. 
The  Slavery  Agitation       ..........     406 

The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill.     Troubles  in  Kansas 409 

The  Scheme  of  Compensated  Emancipation.     Secession         .         .         .411 

CHAPTER    XXXI. 

PRESIDENCY   OF  LINCOLN.      THE  CIVIL  WAR.        .          .416 

CHAPTER    XXXII. 

ADMINISTRATIONS   OF  JOHNSON  AND   GRANT. 

Reconstruction.     Impeachment  of  President  Johnson.     Alaska      .         .  433 

Grant's  Administration.    The  Freedmen.     Education      ....  436 

The  New  Indian  Policy    ..........  442 

The  Temperance  Question 449 

Arbitration  and  Peace       ..........  454 

Science  in  America  ...........  460 

A  Few  Statistics  of  Progress 464 


PREFATORY   NOTE. 


THE  writer  of  the  following  pages  recalls  the  fact  that  when 
he  was  a  grammar-school  student  in  the  "  City  of  Brotherly 
Love,"  it  was  the  practice  of  the  pupils  in  the  uppermost 
class,  in  lieu  of  other  regular  exercises,  to  rehearse  the  wars 
of  their  country.  For  this  purpose  each  boy  was  furnished 
by  the  principal  with  a  memorandum  book,  and  required  to 
transcribe  briefly  the  battles  of  the  Revolution,  and  of  the 
War  of  1812.  The  review  of  these  notes  occurred  so  fre 
quently,  that,  while  we  became  very  proficient  concerning 
the  battles  fought  by  our  forefathers,  we  remained  extremely 
ignorant  of  matters  pertaining  to  the  Indians  (save  that  they 
were  barbarous  savages),  the  slaves,  and  other  items  of  intrinsic 
interest  bearing  upon  our  country's  welfare. 

This  persistent  indoctrination  of  warlike  ideas  resulted  in 
producing  an  intensely  partisan  feeling,  so  that  the  very 
name  of  "British,"  or  "Mexican,"  became  a  hateful  sound 
to  our  patriotic  apprehensions.  Indeed,  our  principal  con 
cern  appeared  to  be,  to  learn  how  much  greater  was  the 
battle-loss  in  killed  and  wounded  on  the  part  of  the  British, 
than  was  that  of  the  Americans.  It  is  not  using  too  forcible 
an  expression  to  say,  that  there  was  begotten  in  our  youthful 
minds  something  of  the  malignant  sentiment  of  murderers. 

Of  the  moral  loss  occasioned  by  a  state  of  warfare,  together 
with  its  exceeding  expensiveness,  we  had  no  conception.  To 
supply,  in  a  measure,  this  lack  of  information,  and  to  pro 
mote  the  knowledge  of  those  things  in  the  past  and  present 
history  of  our  country  which  tend  to  its  peace,  prosperity 
and  true  renown,  are  the  purposes  of  this  work.  The  rule  of 
political  action  recommended,  may  be  concisely  expressed  by 
that  vigorous  Anglo-Saxon  word — STRAIGHTFORWARDNESS. 

GERMAN-TOWN,  PHILADA.,  1877.  9 


"  It  were  miserable  indeed  for  us  to  fall  under  the  just  censure  of  the 
poor  Indian  conscience,  while  we  make  profession  of  things  so  far  trans 
cending." — WILLIAM  PENN. 


10 


I,  I  B  II  A  k  \ 

UNIVERSITY   OF- 1| 

(  AL1FOHNIA. 


HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


CHAPTER    I. 
INTRODUCTORY. 


PURPOSES   OF  HISTORICAL  STUDY. 

ALTHOUGH  the  American  Union  at  this  day  appears  as  a 
specially  brilliant  constellation  among  the  political  systems 
which  have  been  styled  the  Galaxy  of  Nations,  yet  not  many 
generations  have  gone  by  since  this  hitherto  hidden  hemis 
phere  first  became  an  object  of  historical  notice,  and  quickly 
attracted  the  gaze  of  all  the  civilized  world.  But  while  our 
republic  has,  indeed,  thus  attained  to  so  noteworthy  a  position 
in  so  brief  a  time,  as  to  occupy  a  front  rank  among  the  na 
tions  of  the  earth,  yet  we  read  of  other  nations  still  more 
powerful  and  glorious  in  their  outward  aspect,  whose  suns  once 
rose  with  splendor  in  the  East,  but  which  now  are  either  sadly 
degenerated  and  insignificant,  or  else  have  long  ago  sunk  into 
oblivion. 

In  the  pages  of  the  inspired  Scriptures  we  may  find  related 
the  reason  why  the  glory  of  these  people  waned.  It  was  be 
cause  they  were  of  the  nations  that  knew  not  God,  nor  were 
concerned  to  observe  his  statutes.  The  seeds  of  gross  evils 
were  with  them  from  the  first,  and,  not  being  eradicated, 

ii 


12  HISTORY  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES. 

prevailed  eventually  to  their  destruction.  So  it  was  for  the 
instruction  and  reproof  of  all  following  ages  that  we  find  de 
tailed  in  Holy  Writ  the  historical  narratives  of  the  Hebrews, 
their  wars  with  the  surrounding  nations,  together  with  the 
prophecies  of  the  future  wretched  condition  of  them  all,  which 
we  now  witness  to  be  so  remarkably  fulfilled.  Hence,  it  is  by 
the  intelligent  observation  of  such  records,  that  the  student 
of  all  history,  "sacred  and  profane,"  will  be  benefited;  the 
prime  end  of  all  historical  inquiry  being,  to  take  note  of  those 
principles  of  social  and  political  action  which  appear  best 
calculated  to  insure  the  well-being  and  permanency  of  any 
people. 

It  will,  therefore,  be  the  purpose  of  the  following  pages,  not 
so  much  to  seek  the  entertainment  of  the  student  by  minutely- 
detailed  narratives  of  military  campaigns,  as,  while  treating 
those  subjects  at  sufficient  length,  to  endeavor  to  derive  some 
positive  benefit  from  the  observation  of  their  causes  and  effects, 
as  also  to  bring  into  prominence  other  public  matters  which 
deeply  concern  the  well-being  of  the  people  at  large. 

That  historical  treatise  accomplishes  little  or  no  good  for 
humanity  which  delights  mainly  in  military  manoeuvres,  moving 
its  kings  and  captains  in  the  sight  of  the  student  like  the  un 
feeling  puppet  figures  of  a  chess-board,  and,  while  vainly  minis 
tering  amusement,  suppresses  the  sad  tale  of  utter  devastation 
and  woe  that  ever  attend  the  track  of  the  worldly  conqueror. 

Moreover,  by  means  of  intelligent  comparison,  we  should 
strive  to  discern  how  our  own  nation's  sun  or  starry  cluster 
(so  to  speak)  appears  to  be  drifting :  whether  we,  as  a  people, 
by  any  low  estimate  of  honor,  truth,  or  equality  of  rights, 
are  in  danger  of  becoming  utterly  corrupt,  and  thus — over 
whelmed  by  divine  justice — should  become  comparable  to  a 
faint  nebula,  scarcely  discernible  in  the  political  firmament ; 
or,  on  the  other  hand,  whether  it  appears  our  concern  to 
elevate  religion,  peacefulness,  and  every  good  work,  that 


PHYSICAL  ASPECT  OF  THE   COUNTRY.  13 

thereby  we  may  continue  increasing  in  prosperity,  and  so 
exemplify  to  every  nation  that  it  is  indeed  "righteousness  that 
exalteth  a  people." 

PHYSICAL  ASPECT  OF  THE  COUNTRY. 

Before  touching  upon  the  particulars  of  our  country's  his 
tory,  let  us  first  obtain  a  broad  geographical  view  of  the  land  : 
simply  its  prominent  physical  characteristics  of  mountains  and 
plains,  of  rivers  and  forest-areas.  Looking  at  the  centre 
section,  lying  between  its  right  and  left  mountain-barriers, — 
the  Alleghanies  and  the  Rocky  Mountain  range, — we  see  the 
Mississippi  river,  with  its  great  tributaries,  appearing  like  a 
mammoth  tree,  though  overmuch  developed  on  the  left, 
where  the  Missouri,  the  Arkansas,  and  the  Red  rivers  extend 
their  branches.  On  the  right,  spread  out  the  Illinois  and  the 
Ohio,  with  the  Tennessee  and  the  Cumberland. 

Eastward  of  the  Alleghanies,  passing  over  a  rather  narrow, 
undulating  country,  is  the  nearly  parallel  range  of  the  Blue 
Mountains;  and  beyond  the  latter,  a  broad  margin  to  the 
Atlantic  Ocean ;  while  on  the  west,  beyond  the  Rocky  Moun 
tain  chain,  we  find  a  wide  extent  of  mostly  flat  or  desert 
country  to  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Coast  Mountains,  and  then  a 
narrower  margin  between  these  latter  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

Before  European  nations  encroached  upon  the  domain  of 
the  aborigines,  the  aspect  of  the  country  east  of  the  Missis 
sippi  was  vastly  different  from  the  appearance  which  it  pre 
sents  at  this  day.  If,  with  our  eye,  we  follow  up  the  trunk  of 
the  great  tree  which  we  have  imagined,  to  where  the  Ohio 
branches  off  on  the  right,  thence  along  the  latter  to  the 
neighborhood  of  Cincinnati,  across  to  Lake  Erie  and  down 
the  St.  Lawrence  to  the  sea ;  then  follow  around  the  Atlantic 
and  Gulf  coasts  to  the  place  of  beginning  at  the  Mississippi's 
mouth,  we  will  have  measured  the  bounds  of  what  was  in  that 

2 


I4  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 

day  a  dense  and  almost  uninterrupted  forest.  Between  the 
Ohio  river  and  the  vast  Lake-feeders  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
there  were,  however,  some  intervals  of  land  destitute  of 
woods,  and  these  open  spots  increased  in  number  and  size 
as  one  proceeded  westwardly,  until,  in  the  country  of  the 
Illinois,  the  forest  and  the  plain  became  nearly  equal  in  area. 

Beyond  the  Mississippi,  the  change  which  has  ensued  is 
by  no  means  so  notable.  Here  the  prairies  absorb  more  and 
more  of  the  woodland,  until  there  is  reached  that  immense 
plain,  which,  bounded  on  the  west  by  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
extends  from  the  Arctic  Sea  down  to  the  Mexican  Gulf,  with, 
in  many  places,  only  narrow  belts  of  timber  along  the  banks 
of  the  rivers  and  lesser  water- courses.  Here  the  buffalo — 
which  also,  in  limited  numbers,  were  found  east  of  the  Mis 
sissippi  even  to  the  Alleghanies — ranged  in  great  herds,  afford 
ing  a  ready  subsistence  to  the  tribes  of  native  hunters.  In 
the  secondary  ridges  and  intervening  valleys,  the  Parks  of  the 
Rocky  Mountain  region,  forest  land  again  appears,  but  beyond 
those  mountains  is  a  vast  extent  of  prairies  and  desert.  There 
were  no  buffalo  here,  and  the  population  was  sparse;  the 
salmon  of  the  rivers,  and  various  species  of  native  roots  were 
the  principal  articles  of  food.  But  on  the  Pacific  slope  of 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  the  climate  is  mild  and  equable,  the  soil 
fertile,  and,  as  a  consequence,  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and  the 
timber  is  of  exceptionally  large  growth  and  plentiful. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  say  to  the  teacher  of  history,  or 
to  any  appreciative  student,  that  the  open  atlas  is  an  aid  to 
the  retention  of  many  facts,  such  as  ought  not  to  be  neglected. 


ICELAND   AND   THE   NORTHMEN.     MADOC.     THE   ZENI. 

Although  it  is  customary  to  say  that  "America  was  dis 
covered  by  Columbus,"  yet  the  claim  to  the  accomplishment 
of  that  historical  event  belongs  rightly  to  the  NORTHMEN. 


875]  ICELAND  AND    THE  NORTHMEN.  15 

Nevertheless,  many  who  are  unwilling  to  disturb  the  former 
accepted  accounts,  profess  to  disbelieve  the  relations  of  the 
Northmen,  however  reasonably-reliable  the  presented  facts 
may  appear.  On  the  other  hand  it  will  be  denied  by  none, 
that  the  effective  discovery  of  the  land— that  which  occurred 
in  such  a  manner  and  at  such  a  time  as  to  bring  about  positive 
valuable  knowledge  of  the  new  continent,  followed  by  a  flow 
of  people  towards  it  and  its  permanent  occupation— was  the 
re-discovery  by  Columbus. 

Respecting  the  Northmen,  their  occupation  of  Iceland,  and 
the  means  by  which  their  knowledge  of  a  great  country  west 
of  that  island  was  brought  about,  the  following  brief  account 
may  find  a  proper  place  in  this  introductory  chapter.  It  is 
chiefly  from  the  Icelandic  Sagas  that  the  very  imperfect  nar 
rative  which  we  now  possess  of  those  occurrences  is  gathered. 
The  Sagas  are  poems  or  tales,  first  recited  by  the  native  bards 
or  Saga-men,  and  afterward  collected  in  more  permanent 
form  by  the  historians  Ari  Frode,  Sturleson,  and  others. 

The  island  of  ICELAND,  with  an  area  of  thirty  thousand 
square  miles — about  equal  in  size  to  the  state  of  Maine — is 
situated  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  two  hundred  miles  eastward 
from  Greenland,  and  nearly  three  times  that  distance  west  of 
Norway.  Although  usually  accounted  as  appertaining  to  the 
European  continent,  it  properly  belongs  by  position  to  America. 
It  was  occupied  A.D.  874,  by  a  colony  of  Norwegians  under 
the  leadership  of  Ingolf,  who  sailed  away  from  their  native 
land  to  escape  the  imperious  sway  of  the  Viking,  Harold 
Harfager — the  Fair-Haired.  .The  companions  of  Ingolf,  and 
the  jarls  or  noblemen  who  shortly  followed  his  example,  were 
men  of  high  descent,  of  considerable  intelligence,  and  pos 
sessed  of  means,  but  appear  to  have  been  gifted  with  roving 
or  piratical  propensities  which  were  not  agreeable  to  the  wishes 
of  the  Norwegian  viking.  Of  these  jarls  were  Rolf,  who 
sailed  to  France  and  founded  the  Norman  power  there  ;  and 


1 6  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [985 

Ejnar,  who  colonized  the  Orkneys;  and  similarly,  those  who 
settled  the  other  adjacent  island  groups — the  Shetlands,  the 
Faroes,  and  the  Hebrides. 

The  CELTS,  however,  seem  to  have  dwelt  in  Iceland  awhile, 
previous  to  874,  for  we  are  told  by  the  historian  Frode  :  "  There 
were  here  Christian  people,  whom  the  Northmen  called  papas>  but 
they  afterwards  went  away,  because  they  would  not  be  here  among 
heathens  ;  and  left  behind  them  Irish  books,  and  bells  and  croziers, 
from  which  it  could  be  seen  that  they  were  Irishmen." 

More  than  a  hundred  years  after  the  settlement  of  the 
island,  in  A.D.  985,  Eric,  surnamed  the  Red,  having  been 
declared  an  outlaw  in  consequence  of  the  fatal  result  of  a  dis 
pute  in  which  he  became  engaged,  left  his  country  in  a  ship, 
with  a  few  adherents,  and,  sailing  westward,  came  to  the  coast 
of  GREENLAND  :  calling  it  by  that  title,  because,  as  he  ob 
served,  "people  will  be  attracted  thither  if  the  land  has  a 
good  name."  Upon  the  news  of  this  discovery  reaching 
Iceland,  Biarni,  a  man  of  a  bold  and  adventurous  spirit,  set 
sail  for  the  same  region,  but  being  driven  out  of  his  course, 
towards  the  south,  discovered  yet  other  lands,  which  were 
doubtless  parts  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New  England. 

About  the  year  1000,  Eric's  son  Leif — called  Leif,  the  Lucky 
— with  thirty-five  men,  sailed  south  from  Greenland,  and 
landed  on  a  coast,  which,  from  the  description  of  it  given  in 
the  Saga,  is  believed  to  have  been  the  south-eastern  section  of 
Massachusetts.  Here  were  found  great  abundance  of  grape 
vines,  and  so  the  land  was  named  Vinland,  the  good.  To 
Nova  Scotia  was  given  the  name  of  Markland  ;  to  Newfound 
land,  that  of  Helluland. 

Within  the  succeeding  twenty  years,  this  first  expedition 
was  followed  by  others  to  the  same  shores,  under  the  direction 
of  Thorvald  and  Thorstein,  other  sons  of  Eric,  and  by  that 
of  Freydis,  his  daughter.  Thorvald  having  imprudently  pro 
voked  the  natives  or  "  skrellings,"  as  the  Northmen  styled 


1005]  ICELAND  AND    THE   NORTHMEN.  17 

them,  suffered  death  at  their  hands.  The  voyage  of  Thor- 
finn  Karlsefne  (ancestor  of  the  sculptor  Thorwaldsen),  who 
appears  to  have  sailed  several  degrees  farther  south,  was  the 
most  notable. 

After  nearly  four  centuries  of  independent  existence,  under 
the  rule  of  its  own  chiefs,  Iceland  became  subject  to  Norway. 
The  withering  blight  of  party-feeling  which  had  long  prevailed 
in  the  land  rendered  its  conquest  no  difficult  matter.  "Thus 
did  all  the  noble  sentiments  generated  by  equal  laws,  an 
independent  position,  high  descent,  and  intellectual  endow 
ment,  sink  beneath  the  angry  and  narrow-minded  conflict 
of  private  interest  and  personal  animosity." 

Very  little  mention  is  to  be  found  of  the  newly-discovered 
country  subsequent  to  the  accounts  given  by  the  sons  of  Eric, 
although  allusion  is  made  to  the  re-discovery  of  Helluland, 
about  1285,  and  there  is  also  the  account  of  a  voyage  in  1347 
to  Mnrkland,  whither  the  Northmen  came  for  timber.  Of 
Greenland,  we  are  told  that  a  bishop,  also  named  Eric,  was 
sent  thither  in  the  i2th  century  to  attend  to  the  erection  of 
chapels;  and  that,  in  1448,  a  brief  was  issued  by  Pope 
Nicholas  V.  concerning  the  nearly  exterminated  church  in 
that  land.  But  the  country  was  scarcely  heard  of  thereafter 
until  the  year  1721,  when  the  pious  and  persevering  Hans 
Egede  established  a  mission-station  on  the  west  coast.  At 
present,  a  few  similar  stations  of  the  United  Brethren  are  the 
only  settlements  on  that  inhospitable  shore,  where  only  an 
occasional  whaling-ship,  or  Arctic  explorers  in  quest  of  an 
open  polar  sea,  seek  its  ports  of  refuge  in  stress  of  weather,  or 
when  baffled  in  a  bootless  search. 

Far  less  credible  than  the  accounts  of  the  American  voyages 
of  the  Northmen,  is  the  tradition  of  the  discovery  of  the  con 
tinent  by  MADOC,  the  son  of  a  Welsh  prince.  He  is  said  to 
have  left  his  native  land  (1170)  because  of  the  prevalence  of 
a  family  feud,  and,  having  sailed  a  great  distance  to  the  west- 


1 8  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1721 

ward,  discovered  a  country  where  dwelt  a  people  whose  his 
tory,  habitations  and  customs  were  utterly  strange  to  him. 
After  living  there  many  years,  he  went  back  to  Wales  and 
equipped  a  second  fleet,  with  which  he  again  set  sail,  but 
never  returned.  In  the  latter  part  of  last  century,  travellers 
in  remote  regions  of  the  West,  upon  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Red  River  and  the  Missouri,  were  said  to  have  met  with  some 
Indians  whose  hair  was  of  a  reddish  hue  and  their  complexions 
of  a  lighter  shade  of  color  than  was  the  case  with  other  na 
tives.  Parchment  manuscripts,  which  they  exhibited,  were 
believed  to  have  been  written  in  Welsh  characters.  More  re 
cently  the  story  has  been  revived  by  the  reputed  discovery  of 
light-complexioned  natives  among  the  Zunis  of  New  Mexico. 
By  some  observers,  the  Mandans  are  thought  to  be  the  de 
scendants  of  Madoc  and  his  companions. 

Of  a  like  doubtful  character  is  the  relation  attributed  to  the 
brothers  NICOLO  and  ANTONIO  ZENO,  of  Venice.  According 
to  the  narrative,  claimed  to  have  been  set  forth  in  certain  of 
their  letters  published  in  the  i6th  century,  Nicolo  first  visited 
(1380)  the  island-groups  northward  of  Scotland ;  then,  being 
joined  by  Antonio,  they  successively  voyaged  to  Iceland, 
Greenland  and  the  countries  adjacent.  But  the  map  accom 
panying  the  relation  is  of  such  a  perplexing  character,  whilst 
there  are  so  many  discrepancies  apparent  in  the  text  itself, 
that  it  is  generally  discredited  as  the  veritable  production  of 
an  eye-witness  of  the  lands  it  professes  to  delineate  and  de 
scribe.  For  the  present,  at  least,  the  "  Voyages  of  the  Zeni" 
must  be  deemed  to  be  apocryphal. 


CHAPTER    II. 

THE   DISCOVERY   OF   AMERICA. 

1492—1512. 


THE  WAY   PREPARED. 

THE  darkness  of  superstition,  the  clouds  of  error  and  igno 
rance,  with  the  consequent  lack  of  a  pure  religion  and  of 
right-ordered  living,  which  prevailed  over  Europe  during  the 
period  from  the  5th  to  the  i4th  centuries,  have  earned  for 
that  era  the  title  of  The  Dark  Ages.  But  this  sad  condition  of 
mental  and  spiritual  gloom  witnessed  a  wonderful  awakening 
to  the  light,  when  the  Art  of  Printing  was  given  to  man,  and 
when,  shortly  afterward,  the  beams  of  the  Reformation  burst 
upon  a  world,  struggling  for  escape  from  the  domination  of 
error  and  of  priestly  intolerance. 

It  was  in  the  midst  of  this  improving  change  in  the  world's 
civilization  that  the  continent  of  America  was  discovered. 
What  the  Northmen  knew  of  it  was  gathered  at  a  time  when 
that  knowledge,  scant  and  hazy  withal,  lacked  the  means  of 
ready  dissemination — the  press  of  the  printer.  But  now,  in 
the  fifteenth  century,  there  had  arisen  a  spirit  of  inquiry  and 
of  enterprise,  which  was  fanned  into  a  flame  of  emulation 
when  the  existence  of  a  new  world  was,  in  the  ordering  of  the 
Almighty,  made  known  through  the  agency  of  the  navigator, 
CHRISTOPHER  COLUMBUS. 

Yet,  it  was  not  emulation  alone — the  thirst  for  discovery — 
which  was  excited  by  the  revelation.  There  was  a  thirst  for 


20  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1492 

gold  as  well.  The  imaginations  of  men  had  been  set  aglow 
by  the  captivating  stories  of  the  travelers  Mandeville,  Marco 
Polo,  and  others,  and  hence,  were  actively  alive  to  rumors  of 
far-away  regions  where  all  precious  stones  and  metals  might  be 
found  in  abundance.  Lovely  visions  of  Cathay,  of  the  land 
of  Ophir  and  of  "  farthest  Ind,"  were  much  in  the  minds  of 
maritime  people.  The  Azores  and  the  Madeira  Isles  had  been 
found,  outlying  on  the  sea,  while  down  the  African  coast  for 
many  a  league  the  vessel  of  the  navigator  had  southward 
sailed,  and  still  the  land  and  the  lapping  sea  stretched  bound 
less  before  him.  But  now,  possessed  of  the  mariner's  priceless 
boon — the  compass — surely  he  need  not  to  cling  forever  to 
the  shore  and  the  well-known  land,  but  might,  at  his  will,  sail 
westward  whither  his  eyes  and  his  thoughts  had  so  long  been 
wistfully  turned. 

The  crusades  of  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries,  which  had 
opened  to  the  people  of  Europe  the  knowledge  of  the  refined  and 
wealthy  nations  of  the  East,  had  also  incited  new  ideas  of  domestic 
luxury  and  of  adornment.  By  becoming  sharers  in  the  riches  of 
the  Orient,  they  would  thus  be  enabled  to  gratify  these  newly-ac 
quired  tastes  and  desires. 

The  spirit  of  maritime  discovery  was  greatly  fostered  through 
the  persistent  efforts  and  liberal  aid  of  PRINCE  HENRY,'  of 
Portugal :  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  in  consequence  of  the 
substantial  results,  largely  due  to  his  endeavors,  the  kingdom 
of  Portugal,  from  being  one  of  the  least  of  the  nations,  sud 
denly  arose  into  prominence.  He  drew  around  him  the  chief 
men  of  science,  and,  in  order  that  their  learning  might  be  made 
practically  useful,  established  a  naval  college  and  observatory, 
wherein  known  facts  in  geography  and  navigation  were  re 
duced  from  their  previous  crude  shape  to  an  intelligible  sys 
tem.  Much  improvement  was  likewise  devised  in  the  con 
struction  of  maps.  Material  for  the  latter  work  was  constantly 
accruing,  from  the  reports  brought  back  by  the  numerous 


1492]  COLUMBUS.  21 

expeditions  which  he  fitted  out,  to  explore,  and  to  collect 
authentic  information  of,  the  African  coast;  though  it  appears 
that  the  traffic  in  slaves  and  the  barter  for  gold,  soon  became, 
with  the  mercenary  ones,  chief  objects  of  enterprise. 

Prince  Henry  has  been  called  the  "  father  of  modern  geo 
graphical  discovery;"  and  it  is  not  unlikely  that  a  desire  to 
engage  in  similar  exertions  gave  to  the  efforts  of  Columbus 
an  encouraging  impulse,  or,  perhaps,  prompted  his  great  un 
dertaking.  Of  Prince  Henry's  accomplished  work,  it  has 
been  remarked,  that  "  all  this  was  effected,  not  by  arms,  but 
by  arts ;  not  by  the  stratagems  of  a  cabinet,  but  by  the  wis 
dom  of  a  college.  It  was  the  great  achievement  of  a  prince, 
who  had  well  been  described  'full  of  thoughts  of  lofty 
enterprise,  and  acts  of  generous  spirit' — one  who  bore  for  his 
device  the  magnanimous  motto,  '  The  talent  to  do  good' — the 
only  talent  worthy  the  ambition  of  princes." 

COLUMBUS. 

Christopher  Columbus,  or  Colombo,  the  son  of  Dominico 
Colombo,  a  wool-comber  of  Genoa,  in  Italy,  was  born  about 
the  year  1445.  Historians  have  proof  that  he  was  "  honorably 
connected  ;"  but,  as  it  is  pretty  well  conceded  that  title  and 
wealth  do  not  necessarily  convey  merit,  we  will  not  stay  to 
examine  whether  his  ancestry  was  or  was  not  of  noble  lineage. 
Having  an  early  and  decided  inclination  for  the  sea,  his  edu 
cation  was  such  as  to  fit  him  for  a  maritime  life ;  for,  besides 
the  ordinary  studies  of  youth,  he  received,  at  the  University 
of  Padua,  instruction  in  geometry,  geography,  astronomy,  and 
navigation.  At  this  seat  of  learning,  however,  he  did  not 
remain  long,  but  soon  was  afforded  opportunity  to  apply  in 
practice  the  lessons  he  had  learnt,  being  scarcely  fifteen  years 
of  age  when  he  entered  upon  a  nautical  career. 

This  early  and  irresistible  inclination  for  the  sea,  Columbus 


22  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1492 

subsequently  attributed,  and  perhaps  correctly,  to  an  impulse 
from  the  Deity,  inciting  to  the  accomplishment  of  an  ordained 
high  purpose.  In  his  character  there  was  blended  with  con 
siderable  piety,  an  unquestioning  belief  in,  and  veneration  for, 
the  church  and  creed  in  which  he  was  educated.  In  purpose 
he  was  resolute  and  enduring;  and,  although  of  a  naturally 
irritable  temper,  it  was  softened  by  his  simplicity  and  mag 
nanimity  of  spirit.  He  was  tall  of  stature  and  of  commanding 
presence,  and  his  features,  though  long,  and  the  nose  aquiline, 
partook  of  a  gentle  gravity.  Especially  noticeable,  in  an 
Italian,  must  have  been  his  hair,  which  was,  we  are  assured, 
nearly  white  before  he  was  thirty  years  of  age. 

His  first  experience,  in  entering  upon  a  sea-faring  life,  was 
to  accompany  a  naval  expedition  which  was  fitted  out  at  Genoa 
by  an  Italian  duke,  to  make  descent  on  the  kingdom  of  Na 
ples.  For  a  number  of  years  following,  he  was  variously  en 
gaged  in  commercial,  exploring,  and,  perhaps,  also  less  peaceful 
pursuits,  up  and  down  the  Mediterranean  and  in  other  waters  ; 
and  among  other  and  then  remote  places  visited,  it  is  believed 
that  he  went  to  Iceland,  where  vague  tales  of  the  Northmen's 
discoveries  may  have  had  somewhat  to  do  in  influencing  his 
future  course. 

Finally,  in  1470,  he  came  to  Lisbon,  the  capital  of  Portugal, 
but  having  married  the  daughter  of  one  who  had  been  a  sea 
captain  in  the  service  of  Prince  Henry,  and  had  been  rewarded 
by  appointment  to  the  governorship  of  one  of  the  Madeira 
Isles,  they  removed  thither — Columbus  earning  a  livelihood  at 
map-making.  In  the  meantime  he  was  eagerly  alive  to  any 
evidences  of  the  truth  of  the  supposition,  which  had  become 
a  fixed  conclusion  in  his  own  mind,  that  the  figure  of  our 
earth  was,  in  reality,  of  a  nearly  globular  shape — and  not,  as 
had  been  assumed  by  the  world  at  large,  a  flat  surface — and 
hence,  that  there  must  undoubtedly  be  a  way  by  which,  sailing 
westward,  he  would  reach  the  shores  of  India.  The  extent 


1492]  COLUMBUS.  23 

of  the  Asiatic  continent,  described  in  such  glowing  terms  by 
Marco  Polo  and  other  travelers,  he  appears  to  have  consider 
ably  exaggerated,  for  he  had  no  expectation  of  another  land 
intermediate  to  the  west,  between  Europe  and  Asia. 

But  with  these  strangely  wild  and  extravagant  ideas — as  they 
were  then  esteemed  to  be — he  could  make  but  little  headway 
with  the  geographers  and  men  of  science  of  that  time.  His 
first  application  for  assistance  to  demonstrate  the  truth  of  his 
theory,  was  to  the  senate  of  his  native  Genoa.  This  being 
unsuccessful,  he  next  presented  the  matter  to  King  John,  of 
Portugal,  who,  finding  the  problem  too  deep  for  his  wits  to 
fathom,  very  conveniently  referred  it  to  a  committee  on  geo 
graphical  affairs,  for  their  consideration.  But  no  favorable 
report  came  from  the  committee.  Disheartened,  but  undis 
mayed,  by  these  failures  of  his  scheme,  in  1485  he  quitted 
Lisbon  for  Spain,  and  having  applied  to  some  nobles  of  the 
court,  one  of  them  became  sufficiently  interested  in  the  matter 
to  favor  him  with  a  commendatory  letter  to  Isabella,  the  queen. 

It  was  an  inauspicious  period  for  the  success  of  the  object — 
it  being  a  time  of  war  with  the  Moors — and  so  the  application 
was  referred  by  Ferdinand,  the  king,  and  Isabella,  to  Talavera, 
the  queen's  confessor.  The  latter,  willing  to  divide  the  re 
sponsibility  of  passing  judgment  upon  so  abstruse  a  problem, 
summoned  a  junta  of  cosmographers,  who  met  the  "  heret 
ical"  assumption  of  Columbus  with  many  theological  refuta 
tions,  ridiculing  his  theory  of  the  spherical  shape  of  the 
earth,  and,  furthermore,  cited  the  weighty  authority  of  the 
fathers  of  the  Church  against  "the  foolish  idea  of  the  exist 
ence  of  antipodes;  of  people  who  walk  opposite  to  us,  with 
their  heels  upward  and  their  heads  hanging  down  ;  where 
everything  is  topsy-turvy,  where  the  trees  grow  with  their 
branches  downward,  and  where  it  rains,  hails,  and  snows 
upward. ' '  Wherefore  the  junta  decided  against  countenancing 
any  such  erroneous  and  dangerous  notions. 


24  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1492 

Several  years  had  now  elapsed  in  this  fruitless  work  of 
solicitation,  and  several  times  Columbus  was  about  to  carry 
his  suit  to  France,  but  upon  each  occasion  was  stopped  by 
friends  who  had  become  persuaded  of  the  correctness  of  his 
statements  and  the  practicability  of  the  scheme,  and  were 
loth  that  any  other  country  should  gain  the  honor  of  the 
undertaking.  At  last  one  of  these  presented  the  matter  so 
forcibly  to  the  queen  that  her  consent  was  given,  and  the 
requisite  means  furnished  without  any  farther  delay ;  there 
also  being  conferred  on  Columbus  the  present  title  of  Admiral, 
and  the  prospective  one  of  Viceroy  of  all  the  countries  which 
he  might  discover.  Three  vessels  were  equipped,  provisioned 
for  one  year,  and  supplied  with  ninety  mariners, — thirty  ad 
venturers  also  accompanying  the  expedition.  None  of  these 
vessels  were  greater  in  size  than  a  large  modern  yacht,  or  a 
medium-sized  sloop  ;  the  largest  one  only — which  was  called 
the  Santa  Maria,  and  was  the  one  in  which  Columbus  sailed — 
being  decked  throughout.  The  other  two,  known  as  caravels, 
were  called  the  Pinta  and  Nina. 

It  was  the  third  day  of  the  8th  month  (August),  in  the 
year  1492,  that  Columbus,  with  his  little  fleet,  sailed  away 
from  the  port  of  Palos,  in  Spain.  They  were  detained  a  few 
days  at  the  Canary  Isles  to  repair  one  of  the  vessels ;  then 
continued  on  their  westward  course  over  the  strange,  untraveled 
sea.  When  eight  days  from  the  Isles,  two  tropical  birds  were 
seen  ;  then  they  entered  immense  plains  of  sea-weed,  hundreds 
of  miles  in  width,  when  the  mariners  thought  they  had  'come 
to  shallow  water,  but  the  bottom  was  thousands  of  feet  below, 
and  far  too  deep  for  their  longest  lines  to  fathom.  Again 
there  were  birds  seen,  but  no  land  appeared ;  and  now  they 
had  sailed  steadily  on  for  weeks,  and  the  sailors  were  thor 
oughly  alarmed;  the  needle  of  the  compass  had  strangely 
varied — they  were  sailing  and  descending,  as  it  appeared, 
down  the  broad  ocean — and  who  could  tell  if  ever  a  wind 


1492]  COLUMBUS.  25 

would  prevail  to  carry  them  back  again  !  A  mutiny  appeared 
for  a  while  to  be  imminent,  but  the  admiral  contrived  to 
soothe  their  fears,  and  to  animate  them  with  fresh  hopes. 

On  the  eleventh  day  of  the  loth  month  (October),  evident 
signs  of  proximity  to  land  were  observed — as  the  birds,  and 
the  many  objects  that  drifted  by  j  and  at  night,  Columbus, 
standing  by  the  mast  of  his  little  craft,  now  eagerly  and 
acutely  on  the  watch,  saw  a  light  that  moved ;  and,  on  the 
following  morning,  behold,  the  land  !  It  proved  to  be  an 
island  of  the  Bahama  group,  called  in  the  native  tongue 
Guanahani,  and  which  they  named  San  Salvador. 

Landing  on  the  beach,  in  the  presence  of  the  inoffensive, 
awe-inspired  natives,  they  knelt  and  offered  thanks  for  their 
safety  and  their  great  discovery ;  then  raised  the  figure  of  the 
cross,  and  Columbus,  with  sword  in  hand,  took  possession  of 
the  land  on  behalf  of  the  monarchs  of  Spain.  After  bartering 
with  the  islanders,  who  continued  to  be  very  pacific,  they 
sailed  southward  and  discovered  Cuba,  and  next  Hayti  or 
Hispaniola.  On  the  north-west  coast  of  the  latter  island  a 
fort  was  built,  and,  leaving  some  of  his  followers  to  keep  it, 
Columbus  quickly  returned  to  Spain,  to  announce  to  the 
court,  then  sitting  at  Barcelona,  the  news  of  his  wonderful 
discovery. 

Before  the  departure  of  Columbus,  one  of  his  vessels,  which  had 
approached  too  near  the  beach,  was  wrecked.  The  native  prince, 
with  friendly  zeal,  sent  out  men  in  canoes  to  assist  the  Spaniards  in 
saving  their  goods.  He  also  placed  guards  on  land  to  keep  away 
the  press  of  the  people  from  even  gratifying  their  curiosity  to  see 
the  strange  merchandise  of  the  whites.  "  His  subjects,"  says  the 
historian  Herrera,  "participated  in  all  his  feelings,  wept  tears  of 
sincere  distress  for  the  sufferers,  and  condoled  with  them  in  their 
misfortune.  But,  as  if  this  was  not  enough,  the  next  morning,  when 
Columbus  had  removed  to  one  of  his  other  vessels,  the  good  prince 
appeared  on  board  to  comfort  him,  and  to  offer  all  that  he  had  to 
repair  his  loss  !" 
B  3 


26  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1492 

Upon  returning  to  Hispaniola,  Columbus  found,  to  his  sur 
prise,  that  the  little  fort  had  been  destroyed,  and  that  the 
Spaniards  had  been  either  dispersed  or  killed.  The  latter 
looked  upon  the  islanders  as  unmistakable  heathen,  unbaptized, 
and  with  no  knowledge  of  the  Christian  Church ;  but  the 
pity  for  their  ignorance,  which  should  have  been  shown  in 
acts  of  strict  justice  and  all  good-will  toward  them,  probably 
found  expression  in  contempt  and  acts  of  aggression,  which 
the  Indians  had  thus  (as  they  thought,  justifiably)  resented. 

Neither  Columbus  nor  his  followers  were  inclined  to  submit 
to  this  piece  of  sharp  retribution,  however  well-merited. 
Accordingly,  though  mustering  but  two  hundred  foot  soldiers, 
twenty  horse,  and  twenty  large  blood-hounds,  they  at  once 
attacked  the  offending  natives,  who,  in  their  turn,  were 
severely  punished,  and  great  numbers  of  them  captured  and 
condemned  to  be  slaves.  However  strange  it  may  seem  that 
dogs  should  be  mentioned  as  constituting  part  of  a  military 
force,  they  were,  perhaps,  as  formidable  and  destructive,  when 
employed  against  naked  Indians,  as  any  agency  of  wrath  that 
the  invaders  could  use. 

From  neighboring  chiefs,  or  caciques,  whether  anything 
wrong  was  charged  against  them  or  not,  tribute  was  exacted 
as  due  to  the  Spaniards.  The  country  had  been  taken  pos 
session  of  in  the  name  of  the  Spanish  crown,  and  due  returns 
must  be  made  to  the  royal  exchequer. 

These  stringent  acts,  together  with  the  fact  that  Columbus 
obliged  the  hidalgos  who  had  come  to  the  colony  to  perform 
more  labor  than  was  agreeable  to  their  inclinations,  raised  up 
many  enemies  against  him.  To  reply  to  their  accusations, 
which  were  working  him  injury  at  court,  Columbus  returned 
to  Spain,  where  he  found  that  his  honors  had  indeed  much 
declined  in  the  popular  estimation.  He  still  retained,  how 
ever,  enough  of  the  royal  favor  to  be  allowed  to  proceed  on 
a  third  voyage,  commissioned  with  authority  to  make  further 


1498]  COLUMBUS.  27 

discoveries.  This  time  he  came  to  land  at  the  island  of 
Trinidad,  sailed  between  it  and  the  mainland,  opposite  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Orinoco,  and  then  continued  on  to  His- 
paniola  (1498). 

From  here  he  now  sent  six  hundred  slaves  to  Spain.  In  a 
letter  to  the  sovereigns,  in  which  he  justified  his  course  on  the 
ground  that  the  change  would  be  better  for  the  souls  of  the 
natives,  as  they  could  thus  more  readily  be  made  Christians, 
he  also  estimates  that  "in  the  name  of  the  sacred  Trinity" 
there  may  be  sent  as  many  slaves  as  sale  could  be  found  for 
in  Spain.  This  traffic  was  against  the  express  wishes  of  Isa 
bella,  who  had  always  desired  that  the  natives  should  not  be 
deprived  of  their  freedom.  Yet,  upon  the  pretext  that  it  was 
doing  God  service,  were  the  caciques  subdued  or  forced  to 
pay  tribute,  some  in  gold,  others  in  cotton,  or  the  bread  of 
the  country,  while  others  again,  being  taken  prisoners  of  war, 
were  made  slaves,  and  compelled  to  work  in  the  mines,  or 
sent  away  prisoners  to  Spain. 

In  vivid  contrast  to  this  sad  picture  is  that  which  is  brought  to 
view  in  reading  a  description  of  some  of  these  islanders,  as  por- 
tiayed  in  an  early  letter,  written  by  Columbus  himself,  to  his  royal 
patrons  :  "  They  are  a  loving  and  courteous  people,"  he  writes,  "  so 
docile  in  all  things  that  I  assure  your  highnesses  I  believe,  in  all  the 
world,  there  is  not  a  better  people  or  a  better  country ;  they  love 
their  neighbors  as  themselves,  and  they  have  the  sweetest  and 
gentlest  way  of  talking  in  the  world,  and  always  with  a  smile." 

Columbus  was  probably  not  avaricious :  the  love  of  science 
and  investigation  were  too  deeply  implanted  to  permit  such 
sordid  motives  to  prevail  for  his  own  benefit.  But  he  had 
been  accustomed  to  the  slave-trade  by  his  early  voyages  along 
the  coast  of  Africa,  and,  doubtless  from  a  desire  to  make  his 
discoveries  remunerative  to  Spain,  was  solicitous  that  the  royal 
revenues  should  not  be  neglected.  Still,  his  course  did  not 
meet  with  the  approval  of  the  Spanish  sovereigns,  and  by  the 


28  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1502 

governor  who  superseded  him  he  was  sent  home  in  chains.  A 
galling  condition  must  this  have  been  to  his  spirit ;  but,  alas  ! 
how  many  thousands  of  hapless  slaves  since  then  have  been 
carried  over  these  very  seas  to  a  wretched,  life-long  servitude 
— victims  of  a  system  of  which  Columbus  himself  was  here 
the  originator ! 

Columbus  was  once  more  reinstated  in  favor,  and  set  out, 
in  1502,  on  his  fourth  and  last  American  expedition,  expecting 
to  be  rewarded  by  finding  a  strait  through  which  he  could 
reach  the  continent  of  Asia ;  but  after  sailing  down  the  coast 
of  Honduras,  and  finding  that  the  land  bent  eastward,  along 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  he  abandoned  the  quest.  Upon  his 
way  thence  to  Hispaniola,  he  was  wrecked  upon  the  coast  of 
Jamaica,  remaining  there  a  year  before  succor  arrived.  He 
died  in  1506,  at  Valladolid,  soon  after  his  return  to  Spain. 

The  conquest  of  the  neighboring  island  of  CUBA  was  accom 
plished  in  1512,  by  Don  Velasquez,  one  of  Columbus'  cap 
tains.  We  are  told  that  the  Cubans  were  so  unwarlike  that 
the  Spaniards  experienced  no  difficulty  in  overrunning  the 
island,  except  from  a  certain  chief  named  Hatvey,  who  had 
fled  from  Hispaniola,  where  he  had  witnessed  enough  of  the 
cruelty  of  the  Europeans  not  to  desire  their  further  acquaint 
ance.  He  was,  nevertheless,  overcome,  and  condemned  to 
the  flames.  When  fastened  to  the  stake,  says  Las  Casas,  a 
Franciscan  friar  endeavored  to  convert  him,  promising  him 
immediate  admission  into  the  joys  of  heaven.  But  with  bit 
terness  Hatvey  replied,  that  he  wished  not  to  go  to  a  place 
where  he  might  meet  even  the  best  of  so  sinful  a  race  as  were 
his  persecutors ! 


CHAPTER    III. 
THE    ABORIGINES. 


THE     MOUND-BUILDERS. 

THE  valley  of  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,  was  anciently 
peopled  by  a  race,  who,  from  the  circumstance  of  their  having 
constructed  numerous  mounds  of  earth,  have  been  named  the 
MOUND-BUILDERS.  We  have  no  means  of  knowing  what  was 
their  true  national  name. 

The  form  of  these  artificial  mounds  is  mostly  that  of  a  pyr 
amid,  terraced  or  truncated ;  sometimes  square  at  the  base,  or 
of  other  rectangular  shape,  but  occasionally  six-  or  eight- 
sided  ;  while  some  of  the  higher  ones  appear  to  have  been 
constructed  with  stairways  winding  to  the  summit.  These 
latter  forcibly  recall  the  teocallis  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America,  which  were  pyramids  used  for  the  worship  of  the 
Aztec  gods,  and  were  usually  constructed  of  earth,  with  an 
exterior  facing  of  stone,  in  which  were  rows  of  steps  by  which 
to  mount  to  the  level  platform  at  the  summit,  where  the  sacri 
fices  were  offered.  Hence  it  is  inferred  that  the  mounds  of 
the  north  were  built  by  the  same  race,  and  subserved  a  like 
religious  purpose,  as  those  of  the  Mexican  structures ;  though 
many  other  conjectures  as  to  their  probable  use  have  been 
suggested. 

Among  the  largest  of  these  regular-shaped  mounds  is  one 
at  Miamisburg,  Ohio,  which  is  about  850  feet  in  measurement 
around  the  base,  and  68  feet  in  height ;  one  in  West  Virginia, 
which  is  over  70  feet  high,  and  1000  feet  in  circumference; 

3*  29 


30  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

and  one  still  larger,  at  Cahokia,  Illinois,  opposite  St.  Louis, 
which  is  700  feet  long,  500  feet  wide,  and  90  feet  high.  Their 
ordinary  height,  however,  is  from  6  to  30  feet.  Near  Love- 
dale,  Kentucky,  there  is  an  octagonal  mound,  each  side  of 
which  measures  150  feet  in  length.  Three  graded  ways  ascend 
from  the  ground  to  the  sides  of  the  structure. 

Another  frequent  form  of  construction  is  that  of  inclosures 
formed  by  heavy  embankments  of  earth  and  stone,  five  to 
thirty  feet  high,  and  inclosing  usually  from  one  to  fifty  acres ; 
though  there. are  a  number  containing  as  many  as  four  hundred 
acres.  Some  of  them  were  exact  circles  or  squares;  some  com 
prised  a  square  within  a  circle,  besides  many  other  forms.  Their 
use  is  not  clearly  apparent,  though  it  is  generally  supposed  that 
they  were  intended  for  the  purpose  of  fortifications.  These, 
as  well  as  the  mounds,  are  found  in  especially  large  numbers 
in  the  state  of  Ohio,  where  it  is  estimated  that  there  are  as 
many  as  ten  thousand  of  the  latter,  and  at  least  one  thousand 
five  hundred  of  the  inclosures.  In  the  Southern  States,  where 
sun-dried  bricks  were  frequently  used  in  their  construction, 
they  more  nearly  resemble  the  mound-works  of  the  Central 
American  region. 

There  is  likewise  a  third  class  of  these  antiquities,  repre 
senting  a  diversity  of  odd  forms,  such  as  animals,  birds,  men, 
etc.,  lying  flat,  of  course,  and  of  great  size — often  one  or  two 
hundred  feet  or  more  in  length.  In  Adams  county,  Ohio, 
there  is  a  remarkable  work  of  this  kind,  which  is  in  the  shape 
of  a  serpent,  extending  in  curves  a  fifth  of  a  mile,  and  of  an 
average  width  of  thirty  feet.  The  tail  is  triple-coiled,  while 
in  the  distended  jaws  there  can  be  traced  the  perfect  figure 
of  an  egg,  which,  in  its  less  and  greater  diameters  is,  re 
spectively,  80  and  1 60  feet. 

In  Licking  county,  Ohio,  is  an  interesting  effigy  of  the  same 
sort,  known  as  the  "Alligator,"  the  extreme  length  of  which 
is  250  feet,  and  the  breadth  of  the  body  40  feet.  Nothing 


THE  MOUND-BUILDERS.  31 

has  been  found  in  it  except  stones  and  the  fine  clay  used  in 
its  construction.  A  circular  elevation  to  the  right,  covered 
with  stones  much  burnt,  may  indicate  that  the  effigy  was  sym 
bolical  in  its  signification,  and  that  sacred  rites  were  performed 
in  connection  with  it.  But  this  view  is  disputed. 

Remains  of  these  various  constructions  are  found  in  most 
of  the  states  of  the  Mississippi  valley  and  its  tributaries,  from 
Pennsylvania  to  Nebraska  in  the  north,  and  from  Florida  to 
Texas  in  the  south.  They  are  also  reported  to  have  been 
found  at  the  Bute  Prairies  in  Oregon,  and  along  the  Gila  and 
Colorado  rivers  of  Arizona,  though  that  these  works  are  iden 
tical  in  construction  with  the  others,  appears  to  need  confir 
mation.  Where  St.  Louis  now  stands,  the  land  was  dotted 
over  with  many  mounds,  and  on  the  Illinois  shore,  across  the 
river,  in  what  is  known  as  the  American  Bottoms,  there  are  to 
be  seen  some  of  the  largest  yet  discovered. 

In  the  canon  country  of  south-western  Colorado,  some  very  inter 
esting  discoveries  pertaining  to  the  early  civilization  of  America 
have  been  recently  brought  to  light  by  the  U.  S.  Scientific  Exploring 
Expedition  in  charge  of  Prof.  Hayden.  Living  in  a  region  where 
rock  abounded,  the  constructions  of  the  early  dwellers  in  that  land 
were  essentially  different  from  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  allu 
vial  basin  of  the  Mississippi. 

Ernest  Ingersoll,  naturalist  of  the  expedition  of  1874,  reports  : 
"  We  first  found  in  the  canon  of  the  Rio  Mancos,  mounds  of  earth 
concealing  piles  of  earthenware,  masonry,  and  strewn  with  frag 
ments  of  pottery,  ornamented  by  imprinted  designs  on  the  outside, 
and  glazed  and  painted  within.  Then  the  mounds  became  more 
numerous,  and  clustered  into  villages  ;  vestiges  of  ancient  walls  of 
regularly-cut  stone,  and  round  towers  in  an  excellent  state  of  preser 
vation,  together  with  the  remains  of  underground  workshops,  ap 
peared.  These  were  in  the  villages,  and  recorded  the  prosperous 
condition  at  that  time  of  this  ancient  people  when  those  fertile  river 
bottoms  blossomed  and  bore  fruit  in  abundance." 

From  the  fact  of  the  existence  of  these  great  and  numerous 
works,  it  has  been  inferred  that  the  Mound-Builders  were  a 


3 2  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES. 

more  settled  and  civilized  nation  than  was  ever  the  present 
race  of  Indians ;  also,  that,  unlike  those  nomadic  tribes, 
whose  chief  occupations  have  been  hunting  and  righting, 
the  Mound-Builders  were  a  peaceful  and  eminently  agricul 
tural  people.  They  were  a  race  not  clad  in  skins,  as  were 
the  Indians,  but  in  woven  garments  made  of  a  material  re 
sembling  hemp,  and  of  a  uniform  texture.  No  trace  of  their 
ordinary  dwellings,  which  were  doubtless  made  of  wood,  has 
ever  been  discovered. 

As  to  the  articles — besides  human  remains — which  have 
been  found  in  these  mounds,  they  comprise  a  variety  of  im 
plements,  such  as  chisels,  arrow-  and  lance-heads,  axes  and 
knives ;  of  ornaments,  such  as  bracelets,  beads  and  pendants — 
chiefly  made  of  copper,  but  some  also  of  silver,  serpentine  and 
porphyry;  articles  of  pottery,  tastefully  designed  and  finished; 
plates  of  mica  and  discs  of  hornstone ;  also  pipes  in  quantity, 
which  proves  them  to  have  been  great  smokers.  These  pipes 
were  not  made  of  the  well-known  pipestone  of  Minnesota 
which  the  present  Indians  use,  but  of  a  fine  porphyry  of  many 
shades  of  color,  upon  which  were  sculptured  imitations  of 
birds  and  animals  and  of  the  human  face  and  head. 

They  were  probably  not  worshipers  of  idols,  as  they  have 
left  us  no  figures  which  appear  to  have  been  intended  for  such 
use,  nor  any  of  the  full  form  of  man.  Many  of  the  mounds 
contain  ashes,  and  bones  charred  or  decayed,  indicating  that, 
whatever  other  purposes  they  were  intended  to  subserve,  they 
were  at  least  frequently  used  as  places  of  sepulture.  Some  of 
the  copper  articles  referred  to  above,  which,  being  all-metal, 
were  worked  into  the  desired  shapes  without  smelting,  are 
known  to  have  come  from  mines  on  Lake  Superior,  inasmuch 
as  they  exhibit  the  peculiarity  pertaining  to  the  ore  found 
there,  of  containing  blotches  and  granules  of  silver.  This 
surmise  has  been  amply  corroborated  of  late  years,  by  the 
discovery  of  great  numbers  of  ancient  mining  places  upon  the 


THE  MOUND-BUILDERS.  33 

long  Keweenaw  Point  of  Lake  Superior,  where  most  of  the 
copper  from  that  region  is  even  now  mined. 

By  various  theorists,  the  Phoenicians,  the  Hindoos,  and  the 
Egyptians,  have  each  been  thought  to  be  the  parent-race  of  the 
Mound-Builders,  while  there  have  been  those  who  claimed 
them  to  be  descendants  of  the  "lost  tribes  of  Israel."  It  is 
believed  by  many  investigators  that  they  came  from  Mexico 
and  Central  America,  and,  spreading  northward,  established 
communities  upon  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi;  that  they  lived 
several  centuries  in  the  land  until  they  were  either  extermi 
nated  or  pressed  back  the  way  they  came,  by  the  ancestors  of 
the  present  race  of  Indians,  descending  from  the  north.  It 
is  also  thought  that  a  remnant  became  incorporated  with  the 
Indians  and  formed  tribes,  of  which  the  Mandans  and  the 
Natchez  have  been  cited  as  instances,  on  account  of  some 
exceptional  peculiarities  in  color,  manners  and  customs. 

Equally  conjectural  is  any  statement  as  to  the  time  that 
they  existed  in  the  country  previous  to  the  coming  of  the 
Europeans,  that  period  having  been  variously  estimated  at 
from  five  hundred  to  two  thousand  years.  Every  skeleton 
which  has  been  exhumed,  has  been  found  in  a  condition  of 
extreme  decay ;  so  much  so,  indeed,  that  any  attempt  to 
restore  the  skull  or  any  considerable  part  of  the  skeleton,  has 
been  found  quite  hopeless.  It  is  asserted  that  there  is  but  a 
single  skull  which  has  been  taken  out  and  preserved  entire. 
Another  proof  of  their  antiquity  is  afforded  by  the  age  of  trees 
found  growing  on  the  mounds,  trees  of  several  centuries' 
growth  being  common.  The  trunk  of  one  which  was  observed 
on  a  mound  at  Marietta,  Ohio,  contained  eight  hundred  rings 
of  annual  growth. 

The  epoch  of  the  Mound-Builders'  occupancy  constitutes 
a  field  for  antiquarian  research,  well  worth  the  attention  of 
the  American  student. 

B* 


34 


HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 


THE   NORTH   AMERICAN   INDIANS. 


When  the  American  islands  and  continent  were  first  dis 
covered,  Columbus  and  his  immediate  successors  supposed 
that  they  had  arrived  upon  the  eastern  shores  of  the  continent 
of  India,  and  hence  they  called  the  natives  INDIANS.  The 
error  was  not  discovered  until  it  was  too  late  to  change  the 
name. 

The  origin  of  the  race  of  copper-colored  Indians  is  as 
much  veiled  in  obscurity  as  is  that  of  the  Mound-Builders. 
In  personal  appearance  they  much  resemble  the  nomadic 
tribes  of  eastern  Siberia,  so  that  it  has  been  supposed  that  they 
are,  as  to  origin,  the  same  people — that  they  crossed  to  this 
continent  by  way  of  Behring's  Strait,  or  the  Aleutian  isles, 
or  across  some  part  of  the  narrow  sea  separating  from  Asia 
— and  that,  proceeding  south-eastwardly  in  quest  of  a  milder 
climate,  they  eventually  displaced  the  less  hardy  Mound- 
Builders,  in  the  same  way  that  the  Goths  of  Europe  overran 
the  empire  of  the  degenerate  Romans.  In  support  of  this 
belief,  is  adduced  a  very  prevalent  tradition  among  the  Indian 
tribes  that  their  ancestors  came  from  a  far-off  region  in  the 
Northwest;  and  the  tradition  is  accepted  as  true  by  some  who 
have  studied  this  people  most  carefully. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  ethnologists  that  the  red  men  be 
long  to  the  Mongolian  type  of  the  human  race, — the  same  as 
the  Chinese  and  the  Tartars, — and  that  all  the  tribes,  separated 
though  they  mostly  are  by  differences  in  language,  have  de 
scended  from  a  common  source.  Although  it  is  true  that 
there  is  seldom  any  noticeable  correspondence  between  the 
words  of  the  different  Indian  dialects,  yet  it  is  from  the  evi 
dence  of  a  marked  uniformity  in  the  grammatical  structure  of 
all  these  apparently  diverse  languages  that  we  find  proof  of 
the  common  origin  of  the  tribes.  This  evidence  is  quite  as 
reliable  as  is  that  derived  from  similarity  of  complexion  and 


THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS.  35 

features.  Exceptions  to  this  conclusion  are  perhaps  to  be 
found  in  certain  Californian  tribes,  whose  language  and  facial 
characteristics  seem  to  betoken  a  Malay  derivation. 

The  nomadic  habits  of  these  various  tribes,  and  the  fact  of 
there  being  no  systematic  interchange  of  commodities  between 
the  families  or  clans  to  bind  them  together,  will  explain  how 
it  happened  that  this  race  soon  ceased  to  be  homogeneous, 
as  that  of  the  agricultural  Mound-Builders  appears  to  have 
been,  and  to  have  separated  into  many  tribes,  each  speaking 
a  dialect  of  its  own. 

Hatchets  shaped  out  of  stone  must  have  proved  poor  in 
struments  with  which  to  fell  the  trees  of  the  forest,  while 
wooden  hoes  made  the  tillage  of  the  stump-covered  clearings 
a  laborious  work  for  the  women,  to  whose  lot  it  chiefly  fell ; 
so  the  red  men's  main  occupations,  when  not  on  the  war 
path,  were  hunting  and  fishing,  athletic  games  and  gambling, 
and  the  construction  of  bark  canoes  and  their  rude  weapons 
of  war  and  of  the  chase.  Far  from  what  are  called  ''civil 
ized"  were  these  rough  weapons, — the  war-club,  the  tomahawk 
of  stone,  the  flint-headed  arrow.  Indian-corn  and  tobacco, 
squashes  and  beans,  were  the  chief  products  of  their  limited 
husbandry.  Their  simple  wigwams  or  lodges  were  chiefly 
formed  of  a  framework  of  poles,  bent  together  at  the  top,  and 
covered  with  skins ;  or  else  were  huts  overlaid  with  bark. 

The  Indians  used  no  written  language,  but  sometimes  ex 
pressed  their  meaning  by  delineating  natural  objects  upon 
wood,  bark,  or  stone.  It  was  by  means  of  strings  of  wampum 
that  they  kept  a  record  of  their  treaties.  When  the  envoys 
of  one  nation  met  in  council  the  chiefs  and  head-men  of 
another,  their  memory  would  be  refreshed  by  the  use  of  belts 
of  wampum  or  a  bundle  of  little  sticks,  each  belt  or  stick 
representing  separate  parts  of  the  speech  to  be  delivered. 
Hence  these  envoys  were  not  usually  the  chiefs  of  any  tribe, 
but  were  chosen  for  their  power  of  clear  and  forcible  expres- 


3 6  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES. 

sion.  A  herald  carried  with  him  the  pipe  of  peace,  and  was 
thus  allowed  safe  passage  through  the  countries  of  hostile 
tribes. 

The  tribes  were  subdivided  into  clans  or  bands,  each  of 
which  had  its  symbolical  designation,  called  the  totem t  which 
was  generally  a  bird  or  an  animal,  and  was  analogous  to  the 
shield-device  among  more  cultured  nations.  Thus  a  tribe 
would  be  divided  off  into  Wolves,  Bears,  Turtles,  Crows, 
Eagles,  etc.  As  a  peculiar  accompaniment  of  this  separation, 
it  was  not:  allowable  for  a  man  and  woman  of  the  same  clan 
to  intermarry,  notwithstanding  there  might  be  no  trace  of 
consanguinity  between  them.  A  "Turtle"  brave  could  not 
have  a  "  Turtle"  for  wife,  but  with  perfect  propriety  he  might 
wed  a  "Dove." 

They  believed  in  a  Great  Spirit,  a  power  superior  to  all 
others,  but  it  was  a  belief  very  much  corrupted  by  super 
stitious  additions  of  special  deities  of  the  forest  and  stream. 
These  numerous  inferior  spirits  or  ministering  angels  were 
called  manitous — there  being  a  manitou  for  each  kind  of  ani 
mal,  for  the  lakes  and  rivers  and  other  objects  in  nature,  all 
of  whom  must  be  propitiated  by  gifts,  such  as  beaver-skins, 
tobacco,  meat,  or  anything  else  which  the  Indian  highly  es 
teemed.  In  place  of  priests  there  were  "medicine  men" 
and  sorcerers,  professed  dreamers  and  interpreters  of  dreams. 
If  an  Indian  was  sick,  the  doctor  would  often  give  his  patient 
a  good  shaking,  besides  pinching  and  beating  him,  whooping 
and  howling  at  him,  and,  in  order  to  expel  the  evil  spirit, 
would  perhaps  rattle  a  tortoise-shell  at  his  ear.  Then  giving 
him  a  severe  bite,  sufficient  to  make  the  blood  flow,  he  would 
exhibit  with  triumph  any  little  thing,  as  a  bit  of  wood  or 
bone,  which  he  had  hidden  in  his  own  mouth,  but  which  he 
would  claim  to  be  the  cause  of  the  disease  that  he  had  now 
happily  frightened  away. 

They  readily  affirmed  a  belief  in  the  immortality  of  the 


THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS.  37 

soul, — that  for  all  skilful  hunters  and  great  warriors,  as  well 
as  for  the  merely  well-behaved,  there  was  an  after-death  transi 
tion  to  lands  of  limitless  forest,  of  boundless  prairies,  and 
of  beautiful  streams, — the  "happy  hunting  grounds"  of  the 
hereafter. 

Various  natural  peculiarities,  as  well  as  likeness  of  language, 
permit  us  to  classify  the  many  different  tribes  into  a  few  allied 
groups.  We  will  specify,  as  nearly  as  the  ascertained  facts 
will  warrant,  those  portions  of  the  country  occupied  by  the 
several  groups  previous  to  their  displacement  by  the  Saxon 
and  Latin  races  of  the  old  world  ;  though  it  is  true  that  a 
number  of  the  tribes  were  in  a  restless,  changing  state — one 
giving  place  to  another — when  the  Europeans  first  appeared 
upon  the  scene. 

Farthest  northward  were  the  ESQUIMAUX,  who  then  (as  they 
.now  do)  occupied  the  shores  of  all  the  seas,  bays,  inlets,  and 
the  islands,  from  Greenland  to  Behring's  Strait.  "Eaters  of 
raw  fish"  their  name  means,  and  inasmuch  as  it  is  their  occu 
pation  to  be  fishers — for  the  seal  affords  them  not  only  food 
and  clothing,  but  light  and  fuel  as  well — their  habitations  of 
ice-blocks  or  drift-wood  do  not  extend  farther  than  a  hundred 
miles  inland  from  the  shores. 

The  ATHAPASCAS  occupied  the  territory  from  Hudson's 
Bay  westward  to  the  Rocky  Mountains — the  Missinnipi  or 
Churchill  river  being  their  southern  boundary.  They  com 
prised  but  a  few  sparse  tribes  of  hunters  and  trappers,  who, 
when  the  English  Hudson's  Bay  Company  was  organized, 
maintained  a  thriving  business  by  disposing  of  their  peltry  at 
the  trading-posts. 

The  next  group  southward,  the  ALGONQUIN-LENAPE,  was  the 
largest  of  all,  their  territory  comprising  most  of  the  region 
from  Hudson's  Bay  southward  to  the  Ohio  river,  and  from 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  westward  to  the  Mississippi  and  the  Red 
River-of-the-North.  The  principal  tribes  included  under  this 

4 


38  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   SJ^ATES. 

head  were  the  Knisteneaux  and  Chippeways,  north  of  the 
Great  Lakes;  in  the  east,  the  Micmacs  of  the  lower  St. 
Lawrence,  the  Mohicans  and  Narragansetts  of  New  England, 
the  Lenni-Lenape  or  Delawares,  on  both  sides  of  the  river  of 
that  name ;  in  the  south,  the  Powhatans  of  Virginia,  and  the 
Shawnees  of  Kentucky ;  in  the  west,  extending  from  the  Ohio 
to  Lake  Superior,  the  Illinois,  Miamis,  and  Ottawas,  the  Pot- 
tawattomies,  and  Sacs  and  Foxes. 

Surrounded  on  every  side  by  tribes  of  the  Algonquin- 
Lenape,  was  the  land  of  the  IROQUOIS.  They  included  the 
Hurons  Or  Wyandottes  of  Upper  Canada;  the  Eries,  south 
of  the  lake  of  the  name ;  but  principally,  the  compact  con 
federacy  known  to  the  whites  as  the  "  Five  Nations."  These 
latter  warlike  tribes  were  located  in  the  centre  lake-belt  of 
New  York,  and  were  named  (from  east  to  west)  the  Mohawks, 
Oneidas,  Onondagas,  Cayugas,  and  Senecas.  The  Tuscaroras, 
who  for  awhile  had  located  south  of  the  Powhatans  of  Vir 
ginia,  came  northward  in  1713,  and  united  with  the  others. 
The  fighting  propensities  of  the  Five  Nations  might  well  earn 
for  them  the  title  of  the  Indian  Spartans.  Isolated  they  were, 
in  the  midst  of  the  Algonquins,  who  beat  against  them  only 
to  be  repelled,  like  baffled  waves  upon  a  rock-bound  coast ; 
while  they,  in  their  turn,  becoming  the  aggressors,  soon  all 
the  country  for  hundreds  of  miles  south  and  west  of  their 
strongholds  among  the  lakes  was  overrun,  and  nearly  depop 
ulated  by  their  reprisals.  Ever  ready  to  follow  the  war-path, 
it  seemed  as  though  they  fought  not  so  much  to  defend  them 
selves  and  their  homes,  as  to  gratify  an  inappeasable  thirst  for 
blood  and  savage  glory.  It  will  appear  farther  on,  how  this 
sanguinary  craving  was  taken  advantage  of  by  both  English 
and  French,  that  it  might  be  used  for  purposes  of  revenge  by 
the  one  nation  of  whites  against  the  other. 

The  MOBILIAN  tribes,  occupying  the  region  from  the  lower 
Atlantic  seaboard  to  the  Mississippi,  comprised  chiefly  the 


THE  NORTH  AMERICAN  INDIANS.  39 

Catawbas  of  Carolina,  the  Seminoles  of  Florida,  the  Creeks, 
Cherokees  and  Choctaws,  the  Natchez,  Uchees  and  Chicka- 
saws.  Of  these,  the  Choctaws  were  the  most  peaceably  dis 
posed  toward  the  Europeans.  They  were  further  advanced 
in  civilization  than  the  tribes  adjacent,  more  considerate  to 
their  prisoners,  and  applied  themselves  more  to  agriculture 
than  to  the  chase.  The  Natchez  tribe,  near  the  present  city 
of  that  name,  had  a  wigwam-temple  and  sacred  fire,  being 
worshippers  of  the  sun.  The  hereditary  dignity  of  Chief  of 
the  Great  Sun,  descended  by  the  female  line.  It  is  thought 
that  the  Natchez  were  a  remnant  of  the  Mound-Builders. 
The  French  writer,  Charlevoix,  says  that  most  of  the  natives 
of  Louisiana  kept  a  perpetual  fire  in  their  temples.  It  should 
be  noted,  to  avoid  error,  that  the  dialects  of  several  of  the 
foregoing  tribes — as  the  Cherokees,  the  Uchees,  and  the 
Natchez — were  quite  distinct  from  each  other,  and  those 
tribes  are  only  here  included  in  the  Mobilian  group  for  the 
purpose  of  convenience. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  to  the  region  of  the  desert,  were  the 
DACOTAHS  or  Sioux.  Their  country  was  included,  north  and 
south,  between  the  Arkansas  river  and  the  Saskatchewan  of 
British  America.  They  comprised,  in  part,  the  Assiniboins 
of  the  north,  the  Mandans  of  Dakotah,  the  Tetons  and 
Omahas  of  Nebraska,  the  Yanktons  and  lowas,  the  Kansas, 
Osages  and  Arkansas.  Fortunately,  the  Indian  names  which 
have  been  conferred  upon  our  states,  rivers,  etc.,  designate 
pretty  nearly  the  localities  where  those  tribes  formerly  existed. 
One  tribe  only,  belonging  to  this  family — the  Winnebagoes — 
was  found  east  of  the  great  river,  being  located  upon  the  west 
side  of  Lake  Michigan,  from  near  the  present  city  of  Chicago 
to  Green  Bay. 

Of  the  other  large  tribes,  west  of  the  land  of  the  Dacotahs, 
there  were,  and  are  still,  the  Blackfeet  of  the  upper  Missouri, 
and  the  Crows  of  the  Yellowstone ;  the  Pawnees  of  the  Platte ; 


40  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES. 

the  roving  Comanches  and  Apaches  of  the  Rio  Grande.  The 
Blackfeet  were  usually  at  war  with  the  Flat-heads  and  Snake 
Indians,  belonging  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  keeping 
guard,  like  watchful  bull-dogs,  that  their  salmon-eating  neigh 
bors  should  not  hunt  the  buffalo.  The  most  of  these  tribes, 
as  well  as  those  of  the  Dacotahs,  resided  in  their  villages  not 
over  five  months  of  the  year,  principally  to  plant  and  gather 
the  crop  of  maize.  Then  the  whole  population,  except  those 
who  trapped  the  beaver  and  other  fur  animals,  would  remove 
to  the  ranging-grounds  of  the  buffalo,  subsisting  on  the  meat 
of  that  animal,  and  preserving  it  in  quantities  for  future  use. 

The  tribes  of  the  Northwest,  beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
the  Flat-heads  and  Snakes,  the  Chinooks,  Walla-wallas,  etc., 
exhibit  a  marked  inferiority  in  stature,  strength  and  activity, 
to  their  brethren  east  of  that  range.  The  California  tribes 
have  long,  straight  hair,  and  very  dark  complexion,  and,  as 
has  been  stated,  are  thought  to  be  of  Malay  extraction. 

Finally,  in  the  region  of  the  Colorado  and  Rio  Gila  are 
the  Pueblos,  or  Village  Indians.  These  live  in  houses  made 
of  adobe — i.e.  mud,  mixed  with  chopped  straw  and  sand  or 
gravel — which  are  generally  several  stories  in  height,  each 
succeeding  story  less  in  size  than  the  one  below,  and  reached 
by  ladders  on  the  outside,  the  whole  forming  three  sides  of  a 
square  and  capable  of  accommodating  hundreds  of  people  :  a 
village,  in  fact,  in  a  single  structure.  As  a  race,  they  seem  to 
belong  with  the  Toltecs  or  Aztecs  of  Mexico  and  Central 
America. 


CHAPTER    IV. 

ENGLISH  AND   FRENCH   DISCOVERIES   IN  AMERICA. 
1496—1542. 


THE  ENGLISH:  JOHN  AND  SEBASTIAN  CABOT. 

COLUMBUS  named  the  isles  of  the  Caribbean  Sea  which  he 
had  discovered,  the  WEST  INDIES,  being  under  the  mistaken 
belief  that  they  were  really  insular  portions  of  that  great 
Oriental  Empire  which,  from  early  manhood,  had  existed  as 
a  cherished  object  of  his  thoughts.  It  was  reserved  for  another 
Italian,  sailing  beneath  the  flag  of  England,  first  to  behold 
since  the  voyages  of  the  Northmen,  the  outlines  of  the 
American  continent  itself. 

An  imaginary  line  drawn  north  and  south  in  the  mid-At 
lantic,  had  been  declared  by  a  "bull"  of  the  pope  as  dividing 
the  right  and  title  to  all  new  discoveries  thereafter  to  be  made 
by  the  subjects  of  Spain  and  of  Portugal — Spain  to  take  west 
of  the  line,  and  Portugal  east  of  it.  But,  other  maritime 
nations  did  not  recognize  either  the  right  or  the  propriety  of 
being  thus  excluded  from  any  country  previously  unknown  to 
them,  to  which  their  ships  might  sail ;  and,  when  found,  of 
planting  the  standard  of  ownership  in  behalf  of  their  respec 
tive  sovereigns. 

This  highly  presumptuous  declaration  or  bull  was  promulgated  by 

that  wicked  pope  Alexander  VI.,  of  the  notorious  house  of  Borgia. 

It  was  the  act  of  one  who  sat  upon  the  throne  as  God's  appointed 

vicegerent,  commissioned  to  give  away  his  earth ;  or,  as  a  historian 

4*  41 


42  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1496 

has  defined  it — "  Splitting  this  mighty  planet  into  two  imaginary 
halves,  he  hands  one  to  the  Spanish  and  the  other  to  the  Portuguese 
monarch,  as  he  would  hand  the  two  halves  of  an  orange  to  a  couple 
of  boys." 

The  fact  of  this  declaration  is  important  to  be  kept  in  mind,  as  it 
will  explain,  in  a  measure,  the  barbarous  treatment  of  the  Indians 
by  the  subjects  of  those  monarchs  who  were  the  pope's  recipients 
of  such  unexampled  favors.  They  rested  the  responsibility  of  their 
sinful  acts  on  the  so-called  Supreme  Pontiff,  fully  persuaded  that  he 
who  could  confer  upon  them  lands  and  people  which  himself  had 
neither  seen  nor  heard  of,  was  amply  qualified  to  absolve  them  from 
the  wrongs  which  might  follow  their  careers  of  conquest. 

King  Henry  VII.  of  England  would  have  been  glad  to 
secure  the  services  of  Columbus,  but  failing  in  that,  he  readily 
acceded  to  the  request  of  JOHN  CABOT  or  Kabotto,  a  wealthy 
merchant  of  Bristol,  but  a  Venetian  by  birth,  for  a  patent  of 
discovery.  This  patent,  which  was  granted  in  1496  to  Cabot 
and  his  three  sons,  Lewis,  Sebastian,  and  Sancius,  and  to  their 
heirs  or  deputies,  authorized  them,  at  their  own  expense,  to 
fit  out  as  many  as  five  ships,  and  therewith  to  sail  east,  west, 
or  northward,  and  to  "seek  out,  discover  and  find  whatsoever 
isles,  countries,  regions  or  provinces  of  the  heathen  and  infi 
dels  whatsoever  they  may  be,  and  in  whatsoever  place  of  the 
world  soever  they  be,  which  before  this  time  have  been  un 
known  to  all  Christians."  A  fifth  of  all  the  profits  realized 
was  to  be  paid  to  the  king. 

The  expedition,  which  was  soon  equipped,  sailed  (1496) 
from  the  port  of  Bristol,  at  that  time  second  only  to  London 
in  commercial  importance.  Cabot  was  accompanied  and 
greatly  aided  in  the  undertaking  by  his  son  Sebastian,  who, 
though  then  but  twenty  years  of  age,  was  a  young  man  of 
much  practical  good  sense.  They  stopped  for  awhile  at  Ice 
land,  and  then  continued  on  the  voyage,  hoping  to  make  theii 
way  to  India  by  a  north-west  passage.  They  came  in  sight  of 
the  main  land  in  the  high  latitude  of  Labrador,  in  point  of 


1496]  JOHN  AND   SEBASTIAN  CABOT.  43 

time  nearly  a  year  before  Columbus  beheld  the  continuation 
of  the  same  continent,  as  he  sailed  southward  along  the  shores 
of  Honduras,  baffled  in  his  quest  of  a  south-west  strait. 

The  Cabots,  like  Columbus,  were  in  search  of  some  land 
of  Ophir  or  fabled  "Golden  Fleece" — something  that  would 
dazzle  the  world  at  home  with  the  relation  of  impressive 
grandeur,  or,  at  least,  of  a  charming  novelty.  But  the  aspect 
of  the  Labrador  coast — the  bold,  rocky  cliffs,  and  the  sterile 
soil,  populous  only  with  countless  sea-birds — was  not  very 
alluring  to  their  expectant  gaze.  Besides,  the  line  of  coast 
ran  not  in  accordance  with  their  preconceived  wish ;  for,  says 
Sebastian,  in  the  simple  language  of  the  narrative,  "After 
certayne  dayes,  I  found  the  land  runne  toward  the  north, 
which  was  to  me  a  great  displeasure."  They  followed  down 
the  coast,  and  sailed  into  the  bay  which  is  now  our  metropoli 
tan  port;  but  the  sailors  manifesting  much  discontent  at  the 
prolongation  of  the  voyage,  Cabot  reluctantly  returned  to 
England. 

A  second  patent  was  issued  in  1498  by  King  Henry,  but  the 
elder  Cabot  dying  in  the  meantime,  his  son  Sebastian  took 
charge  of  the.  new  expedition,  a  number  of  merchants  assisting 
in  the  outfit.  Three  hundred  men,  who  proposed  to  establish 
a  colony  in  the  New  World,  went  out  in  the  ships — though 
these  "shippes"  were  of  no  greater  capacity  than  about  two 
hundred  tons  each.  Unfortunately  for  the  comfort  of  the 
would-be  colonists,  they  were  landed  too  far  to  the  northward. 
Cabot  did  not  perceive  why  the  latitude  of  the  southern  ex 
tremity  of  Labrador,  which  corresponds  to  that  of  Bristol,  in 
England,  should  be  notably  colder,  and  his  patent  did  not 
give  him  any  claim  to  the  land  south  of  that  line.  Hence  he 
found  upon  his  return  to  the  colony,  after  sailing  awhile  along 
the  coast,  that  his  companions,  although  suffering  much  from 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather,  had  taken  no  steps  to  es 
tablish  themselves  upon  so  bleak  a  shore  where  even  the  mid- 


44  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1517 

summer  sun  lacked  a  genial  warmth.  The  demand  of  the 
men  to  be  taken  home  was,  considering  their  unlooked-for 
hard  experience,  a  reasonable  one;  so  Cabot,  after  having 
sailed  as  far  southward,  perhaps,  as  Florida,  returned  again  to 
England. 

The  king,  very  naturally,  was  not  a  little  disappointed  at 
the  ill-success  of  this  second  attempt,  while  Cabot,  failing  to 
obtain  another  patent,  pursued  his  researches  in  more  southern 
latitudes,  being  for  awhile  in  the  service  of  Ferdinand  of 
Spain.  But  his  royal  patron  dying,  Cabot  went  back  to  Eng 
land.  Henry  VIII.  had  meanwhile  succeeded  to  the  throne, 
and  by  him  Cabot  was  commissioned,  in  1517,  to  sail  once 
more  to  America.  This  time  he  entered  the  great  Bay,  which, 
years  after,  was  re-discovered  and  named  by  the  navigator 
Hudson.  Finding  no  western  outlet,  and  the  manners,  as  on 
the  previous  occasions,  complaining  bitterly  of  the  rigorous 
climate,  Cabot,  to  avoid  a  mutiny,  put  back  to  England. 

Subsequently,  Cabot  again  went  to  Spain,  was  appointed  by 
Charles  the  Fifth  to  the  station  of  Pilot-Major,  and  continued, 
until  upwards  of  eighty  years  of  age,  his  favorite  pursuits  of 
cosmography  and  practical  navigation.  No  expeditions  of  the 
English  followed  Cabot's  until  those  of  Frobisher  and  of 
Humphrey  Gilbert,  sixty  years  later — of  which  due  mention 
will  be  made  in  a  succeeding  chapter. 

DISCOVERIES    BY    THE    FRENCH. 

It  would  hardly  have  been  in  accordance  with  human  nature, 
as  it  certainly  would  not  have  been  with  that  of  the  French, 
that  the  exploits  of  their  neighbors  in  finding  new  worlds 
should  ring  in  their  ears,  and  themselves  remain  quiescent  at 
home.  Spain  had  found  an  India  over  the  western  sea,  and 
was  already  gathering  into  her  coffers  a  guilty  harvest  of  gold  : 
the  ships  of  England,  in  thfc  North  Atlantic,  were  actively 


1498]  DISCOVERIES   OF   THE  FRENCH.  45 

seeking  for  the  passage  which  should  lead  to  China  and  a 
hoped-for  traffic  bringing  rich  returns :  Italy,  in  the  person 
of  Amerigo  Vespucci,  who  had  sailed  to  the  southern  section 
of  the  new  hemisphere,  and,  realizing  the  fact  that  it  was 
virtually  a  new  world  and  no  part  of  India  that  had  been 
discovered,  gave  to  all  the  continent  the  name  of  AMERICA  : 
while  Portugal,  little  kingdom  though  it  was,  had  become 
famous  above  every  nation  for  the  extent  of  its  discoveries, 
and  its  capital  of  Lisbon  revelled  in  the  new-found  wealth. 

For  in  that  year  of  mark,  1498,  a  Portuguese  expedition 
under  Vasco  de  Gama,  continuing  the  exploration  of  the 
African  coast  which  had  been  begun  by  Prince  Henry,  rounded 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  for  the  first  time,  and  sailed  far 
beyond  to  Calicut  in  India.  The  lucrative  trade  in  spices  and 
indigo,  in  the  rich  silks,  the  ivory,  and  other  captivating 
commodities  of  the  Orient,  began  at  once.  Brazil  also  was 
soon  afterward  discovered,  and  became  an  appendage  of 
Portugal;  and  in  1501,  two  caravels  commanded  by  CASPAR 
CORTEREAL,  following  in  the  track  of  Sebastian  Cabot,  had 
coasted  along  the  shores  of  Labrador.  Their  visit,  however, 
boded  no  good  to  the  too-trustful  natives,  fifty  or  more  of 
whom  were  captured  and  carried  back  in  the  vessels  to  be  sold 
as  slaves.  It  appeared  that  the  Portuguese  had  no  idea  of  going 
home  empty-handed;  for  they  were  then,  as  they  have  con 
tinued  to  be  even  to  this  day,  a  nation  with  a  strong  lust  for 
kidnapping  their  fellow-creatures.  The  annals  of  the  time,  it 
is  a  relief  to  record,  make  no  farther  mention  of  any  suc 
ceeding  visits  by  them  (except  as  fishermen)  to  the  North 
American  coast. 

Although  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  and  the  adjacent 
island  of  Cape  Breton,  were  frequented  by  French  fishermen 
from  Brittany  and  Normandy,  within  a  very  few  years  after 
Cortereal's  voyage;  and  although  the  Gulf,  afterwards  called 
the  ST.  LAWRENCE,  had  also  been  explored,  and  a  map  of  its 


46  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1524 

coast-line  drawn  by  Denys  of  Honfleur,  a  citizen  of  France ; 
yet  it  was  not  until  the  year  1524  that  a  vessel  was  despatched 
thither  by  the  royal  commission — that  of  Francis  the  First. 
The  command  of  this  single  caravel  was  intrusted  to  JOHN 
VERRAZZANI,  a  Florentine. 

It  is  a  fact,  in  passing,  worth  bearing  in  mind,  that  the  first  agents 
of  Spain,  England,  and  France,  in  their  American  enterprises — 
Columbus,  Cabot,  Verrazzani — were  all  Italians.  The  merchants 
of  Venice,  of  Florence,  and  Genoa,  had  been  the  "commercial 
kings"  of  the  Mediterranean,  but  now  a  social  and  political  unrest 
prevailed  throughout  the  peninsula ;  the  prosperity  of  the  country 
was  on  the  wane  ;  and  the  services  of  many  of  its  skilled  citizens 
were,  as  we  have  seen,  enlisted  in  behalf  of  other  nations.  Italy, 
which  gave  America  its  name,  had  no  colony  of  her  own  to  hail 
her  as  the  "  mother  country." 

The  vessel  of  Verrazzani  first  approached  the  low  shore  of 
Carolina,  in  the  neighborhood  of  Cape  Fear.  Upon  the  sandy 
beach  was  a  throng  of  wondering  Indians,  who  presently 
pointed  out  a  landing-place  and  made  many  demonstrations 
of  welcome.  It  was  in  the  early  spring  time,  and  from  the 
tall  forests  of  pine  and  of  cypress,  and  the  dense  undergrowth 
of  laurel  and  blossoming  shrubs,  there  was  wafted  a  pleasant 
perfume — or,  in  the  words  of  the  narrative,  "did  yeeld  most 
sweete  savours,  farre  from  the  shore."  They  coasted  north 
ward,  always  received  with  kindly  greetings  by  the  natives, 
but,  in  one  place,  badly  requited  these  tokens  of  hospitality 
by  stealing  a  child  whom  they  desired  to  exhibit  at  home. 
They  would  have  captured  the  mother  also,  had  not  her 
piercing  outcries  caused  them  to  desist. 

Passing  by  the  heights  of  Neversink,  and  the  long  jutting 
promontory  of  Sandy  Hook,  they  sailed  up  the  beautiful 
bay  of  New  York ;  then  continued  on  by  the  Long  Island 
shore  to  where  Newport  was  subsequently  built,  where  they 
spent  fifteen  days,  most  courteously  entertained  by  the  inhabi- 


'»»;».  '•"< 


r.      ft"-'y,. 

1524]  VERRAZZANI.  ''*///»        47 

tants.  Again  they  spread  their  sails,  slowly  following  aloAgN  /  j 
the  rugged,  irregular  coasts  of  Maine,  to  Newfoundland.  In 
these  parts  they  found  the  natives — who  were  of  the  Algonquin 
tribes — both  savage  and  suspicious;  they  had  heard  of  the 
deeds  of  the  plundering  Portuguese,  and,  as  well  they  might, 
kept  themselves  aloof  from  Verrazzani  and  his  crew.  Hence, 
their  provisions  failing  them,  they  shortly  returned  to  France. 
From  the  port  of  Dieppe,  Verrazzani  wrote  to  the  king  a  de 
scription  (which  is  the  earliest  now  extant)  of  the  shores  of 
the  present  United  States ;  and  by  virtue  of  this  narrative,  more 
detailed  than  the  accounts  of  the  Spanish  and  English,  did 
France  lay  claim,  upon  the  pretext  of  discovery,  to  a  large 
extent  of  territory. 

Ten  years  elapsed  before  a  second  expedition  was  sent  out. 
There  was  a  wicked  rivalry  of  kings,  that  for  thirty  long  years 
disturbed  the  peace  of  Europe — the  contest  between  Francis  the 
First  and  Charles  the  Fifth;  and  now  the  French  king,  faithless 
to  the  promise  that  released  him  from  captivity,  and  sorely 
beset  by  the  wily  emperor,  was  in  too  critical  a  plight  to  give 
much  attention  to  the  wilderness  land  in  the  New  World. 
Nevertheless,  Francis  assented  to  the  solicitation  of  the 
admiral  of  the  kingdom,  that  the  time  had  arrived  when  at 
least  some  show  of  effort  must  be  made  toward  colonizing  his 
recently-acquired  dominion  of  NEW  FRANCE. 

To  JACQUES  CARTIER,  a  hardy  mariner  of  St.  Malo,  was 
assigned  the  command  of  the  expedition.  Sailing  from  the 
port  of  his  native  town  with  two  ships,  in  the  spring  of  1534, 
he  crossed  the  ocean  direct  to  the  island  of  Newfoundland. 
The  voyage  was  made  in  the  short  space  of  twenty  days. 
Passing  around  the  island,  and  through  the  straits  of  Bellisle, 
they  entered  the  gulf,  and  crossed  the  same  to  the  mouth  of  a 
great  estuary — the  noble  river  of  Canada — which  was  ascended 
until  land  was  plainly  visible  on  either  side.  Perhaps,  now 
at  last  had  been  found  that  broad  stream  which  would  lead 


48  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1534 

them  to  the  long-sought  Cathay !  They  would  fain  have 
proceeded,  but  being  unprepared  to  encounter  the  storms  of 
winter,  it  was  decided  to  postpone  their  explorations  for  the 
present,  and  so,  the  winds  favoring,  they  turned  the  ships' 
prows  eastward  and  soon  re-entered  the  harbor  of  St.  Malo. 

The  results  of  this  voyage  re-awakened  the  spirit  of  dis 
covery.  Francis,  also,  having  been  worsted  in  his  wars  with 
the  emperor  of  united  Germany  and  Spain,  was  not  averse  to 
extending  his  dominions  in  other  quarters  as  a  compensation 
for  the  losses  incurred,  and  as  a  likely  means  of  replenishing 
the  royal  treasury.  Besides  these  motives  of  self-interest  and 
ambition,  there  was  advanced  another  plausible  plea,  founded 
upon  the  heresy  of  Luther  in  Germany,  and  of  Calvin  in  Swit 
zerland  and  France.  The  losses  in  the  Catholic  fold  must  be 
made  good  by  the  conversion  of  the  heathen  in  the  New 
World.  It  was  thus  that  Cartier  represented  the  case  to  his 
"very  Christian  king,"  and  the  king  readily  complied  with 
the  wishes  of  the  discoverer  by  granting  him  a  new  commis 
sion. 

Three  vessels  were  fitted  out,  and  Cartier,  with  several 
officers  and  men  of  rank  who  were  to  accompany  him,  after 
they  and  the  sailors  had  received  at  the  cathedral  the  absolu 
tion  and  blessing  of  the  bishop,  again  sailed  out  from  St. 
Malo  (1535).  Encountering  a  severe  tempest  the  little  fleet 
was  separated,  but  eventually  came  together  in  safety  in  the 
straits  of  Bellisle.  It  was  then  that  the  name  of  St.  Lawrence 
was  given  to  a  portion  of  the  bay,  though  the  title  was  after 
ward  extended  to  the  entire  gulf,  and  to  the  great  river  flow 
ing  into  it.  This  they  ascended  until  they  came  to  a  certain 
island,  now  called  Orleans,  but  styled  by  them  the  Island  of 
Bacchus;  for  the  trees  with  which  it  was  thickly  covered  were 
all  overrun  with  vines,  upon  which  the  purple  clusters  of  ripen 
ing  grapes  were  everywhere  seen. 

Leaving  the  vessels,  Cartier  and  some  of  his  companions 


1535]  CARTIER  AND  ROBERVAL.  49 

ascended  the  stream  in  a  boat  as  far  as  the  chief  river-settle 
ment  of  the  Hurons,  called  in  their  dialect  Hochelaga.  With 
many  demonstrations  of  welcome,  the  natives  received  these 
pale-faced  strangers,  and  esteeming  them  to  be  beings  of  a 
superior  nature,  brought  forth  the  sick,  maimed  and  decrepit, 
for  their  blessing  and  healing.  From  a  neighboring  height, 
to  which  the  Indians  led  them,  the  French  obtained  a  charm 
ing  view  of  the  majestic  river,  flowing  between  forests  deep- 
dyed  with  the  hues  of  autumn,  and  stretching  far  away  on 
every  side.  This  height  they  appropriately  named  Mont 
Royal  or  MONTREAL;  then  re-embarked,  and  rejoined  their 
companions  down  the  river. 

The  winter  came.  Ice-bound  in  their  vessels,  they  suffered 
greatly  from  the  rigor  of  the  climate,  while  the  scurvy  made 
sad  havoc  among  them.  After  twenty-five  men  had  died  of 
this  distemper,  an  Indian  informed  them  of  a  cure — a  decoc 
tion  of  pine  buds.  The  remedy  proved  effectual ;  and  as  soon 
as  the  river  was  clear  of  ice,  being  disinclined  to  attempt  any 
settlement,  they  prepared  to  return  homeward.  The  good 
offices  of  the  Indians  they  repaid  by  luring  several  of  their 
chiefs  into  an  ambuscade,  where  they  were  captured  and  hur 
ried  on  board  the  ships.  This  act  of  treachery  and  ingratitude 
accomplished,  they  proceeded  to  plant  the  emblem  of  Chris 
tianity.  A  cross  was  raised,  the  banner  of  the  French  king 
displayed,  and  Francis  declared  to  be  the  rightful  owner  of 
the  new-found  territory. 

It  was  not  until  1541,  five  years  after  the  return  of  the 
preceding  expedition,  that  Cartier  received,  with  the  title  of 
Captain-General,  still  another  commission.  The  objects  of  the 
new  enterprise  were  declared  to  be  those  of  discovery,  settle 
ment  and  the  conversion  of  the  Indians ;  who  ate  described 
as  "  men  without  knowledge  of  God,  or  use  of  reason."  But 
as  Cartier,  to  complete  his  crews,  was  authorized  to  ransack 
the  prisons  for  thieves  and  other  malefactors,  it  must  be 
c  5 


50  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1542 

admitted  that  the  means  provided  were  not  of  a  nature  to 
spread  the  true  gospel  of  peace  and  good-will. 

In  addition  to  the  commission  of  Cartier's,  and  superior  to 
that,  was  one  issued  to  the  LORD  OF  ROBERVAL,  naming  him 
the  Viceroy  of  Newfoundland,  and  of  all  the  territory  on  both 
sides  the  gulf  *  and  river  of  St.  Lawrence.  But  the  two  com 
manders  did  not  embark  at  the  same  time,  neither  did  they 
act  in  concert.  Cartier  sailed  first  with  five  ships,  ascended 
the  St.  Lawrence,  built  two  forts,  and  there  passed  the  winter. 
But  the  colonists  were  sullen  and  dispirited — their  provisions 
failed — the  natives  were  now  hostile  by  reason  of  the  previous 
treachery  of  Cartier — and  accordingly  when  spring  opened, 
the  latter  gave  command  to  set  sail  for  France.  Near  the 
Newfoundland  coast,  he  came  in  sight  of  the  vessels  of  Rober- 
val,  inward  bound,  but  refused  to  return  with  him. 

We  need  but  briefly  follow  the  fortunes  of  the  Viceroy.  A 
large  barrack-castle  was  built  where  the  camp  of  Cartier  had 
been — with  the  winter  came  famine  and  disease — there  was 
murmuring  and  threatened  mutiny,  but  it  was  quelled  by  the 
iron  rule  of  Roberval.  In  the  spring  (1542),  the  remnant  of 
the  colony  returned  to  France.  Fifty  years  elapsed  before  the 
French  renewed  their  purpose  of  founding  a  Canadian  empire. 
We  may  now  turn  our  attention  to  the  progress  of  the  Spanish 
conquests  and  colonization  in  America. 


CHAPTER   V. 

THE   SPANIARDS— THEIR   CRUEL  TREASURE-HUNT. 
1512—1542. 


PONCE  DE  LEON,  THE  INVADER  OF  FLORIDA. 

A  rabid  race,  fanatically  bold, 

And  steeled  to  cruelty  by  lust  of  gold, 

Traversed  the  waves,  the  unknown  world  explored, 

The  cross  their  standard,  but  their  faith  the  sword. 

Their  steps  were  graves ;  o'er  prostrate  realms  they  trod 

They  worshipped  Mammon,  while  they  vowed  to  God. 

MONTGOMERY. 

THE  year  that  was  made  memorable  by  Columbus's  great 
discovery,  is  also  marked  in  Spanish  annals  as  that  in  which 
Granada  with  its  royal  palace  of  the  Alhambra  was  conquered 
from  the  Moors ;  and  shortly  after  which  the  whole  country 
became  united  under  the  sovereigns  Ferdinand  and  Isabella. 
And  now  the  haughty  cavaliers  of  Spain,  not  so  much  eager  for 
fresh  displays  of  their  prowess  as  in  the  hope  of  reaping  golden 
requitals  for  former  valor,  began  to  turn  their  attention  to  the 
new-found  empire  in  the  West.  As,  in  their  shameless  quest 
for  this  Eldorado,  they  regarded  neither  the  rights,  the  prop 
erty,  nor  the  lives  of  the  people  who  then  possessed  the  land, 
so  the  following  chapter  is  in  large  part  a  recital  of  the  ruth 
less  deeds  of  freebooters  and  marauders.  Seven  centuries 
of  almost  continuous  warfare  had  prevailed  on  the  Spanish 


52  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1512 

peninsula,  either  between  its  several  rival  kingdoms — as  of 
Leon,  Castile  and  Aragon — or  by  these  together  against  their 
common  enemy  the  Moors  ;  and  strange  would  it  have  been 
had  training  such  as  this  produced  other  than  rough  men  of 
war. 

One  of  those  who  had  taken  an  active  part  in  the  Moorish 
wars  was  JUAN  PONCE  DE  LEON.  Subsequently,  he  was  a 
companion  of  Columbus  in  one  of  his  voyages,  and,  for  vari 
ous  campaign-services,  at  home  and  in  Hispaniola,  he  was 
rewarded  with  the  governorship  of  the  island  of  Porto  Rico. 
There  had  come  to  his  ears  the  rumor  of  a  wonder-work 
ing  fountain,  of  such  rare,  transforming  virtue,  that  whoso 
ever  bathed  in  its  limpid  waters  would  thenceforth  know  the 
weight  of  years  and  of  care  no  more.  De  Leon  credited  the 
marvellous  tale,  and  prepared  to  seek,  among  the  isles  that 
fringe  the  Caribbean  sea  or  on  the  mainland  adjacent,  for  this 
potent  Fountain  of  Youth. 

Sailing  from  Porto  Rico  in  1512  with  three  brigantines,  he 
cruised  awhile  among  the  Bahamas ;  and  on  the  day  which  is 
called  by  the  Spaniards  Pascua  Florida  ("Easter  Sunday") 
descried  in  the  west  a  long  low  line  of  coast.  Nearing  the 
shore,  which  was  fresh  with  the  verdure  of  early  spring,  and 
gay  and  fragrant  with  the  blossoms  of  many  flowers,  he  gave 
to  the  land  the  name  of  Florida.  But  the  coast  was  danger 
ous  of  approach,  and  there  being  no  good  harbor  for  his  ves 
sels,  he  sailed  southward,  rounded  the  point  of  the  peninsula, 
and  proceeded  as  far  as  the  group  of  the  Tortugas ;  then, 
feeling  doubtful  of  present  success  on  land,  he  returned  to 
Porto  Rico. 

De  Leon  received  from  the  Spanish  king  the  title  of  Gov 
ernor  of  the  country  which  he  had  discovered,  with  the 
understanding  that  he  should  proceed  to  plant  colonies 
therein.  It  was  eight  years  before  he  made  the  attempt  to 
take  possession  of  his  province.  But  the  wishes  of  the  natives 


1517]  JUAN  PONCE  DE   LEON.  53 

had  not  been  consulted  as  to  this  summary  disposition  of  their 
own  property,  and  it  is  not  likely  that  they  had  even  so  much 
as  heard  of  the  transfer.  At  any  rate,  they  were  altogether 
averse  to  receiving  the  strangers  in  their  midst,  armed  as  these 
were  with  murderous  weapons  of  war.  Hence  it  happened 
that  when,  in  1520,  the  Spaniards  attempted  to  establish  a 
settlement,  they  were  at  once  beset  by  the  natives  with  great 
fury,  and  moreover  driven  back  to  their  ships.  Ponce  de 
Leon  himself  was  so  badly  wounded  by  a  poisoned  arrow  that 
he  died  soon  after  his  return  to  Cuba. 


DISCOVERIES   AND   CONQUESTS   FROM   MEXICO   TO   PERU. 

Previous  to  the  second  and  ill-fated  expedition  of  Ponce 
de  Leon,  other  important  discoveries  had  been  made  of  the 
countries  bordering  on  the  West  Indian  seas.  FRANCISCO 
FERNANDEZ,  in  1517,  sailing  south-westwardly  after  leaving  the 
port  of  Havana,  discovered  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan.  Co 
lumbus,  it  will  be  remembered,  had  explored  the  coast  from 
the  adjoining  province  of  Honduras  southward  to  the  isthmus. 
Fernandez  met,  at  the  hands  of  the  natives,  with  the  same 
fate  as  did  De  Leon. 

The  following  year,  a  fleet  under  GRIJALVA  explored  the 
shores  of  the  bay  of  Campeachy,  west  of  the  discoveries  of 
Fernandez,  and  also  northward  along  the  Mexican  coast  per 
haps  as  far  as  Panuco — the  bay  of  Tampico.  The  inhabitants 
of  these  parts  proved  to  be  more  confiding  than  those  en 
countered  by  Fernandez.  They  excited  the  cupidity  of  the 
Spaniards  by  tales  of  the  magnificent  empire  of  Montezuma 
and  of  the  great  capital  city  in  the  interior,  and  confirmed 
too  well  the  story  of  their  country's  wealth  by  their  lavish 
display  of  gold.  This  the  adventurers  obtained  in  considera 
ble  quantities,  and,  with  much  satisfaction,  carried  back  with 
them.  Little  thought  the  unsuspecting  natives  that  they  had 


54  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1519 

imparted  the  intelligence  of  their  wealth  to  those  who  would 
return  to  rob,  and  even  to  murder  them,  for  its  possession. 

It  was  the  next  year,  1519,  that  HERNANDO  CORTEZ,  with 
a  fleet  of  eleven  small  vessels,  on  board  of  which  were  nearly 
seven  hundred  men,  sailed  direct  from  Cuba,  and  landed  at 
Vera  Cruz.  His  aim  it  was  (however  plausible  the  wording  of 
the  commission  which  he  held  from  Velasquez,  the  governor 
of  Cuba)  both  to  possess  himself  of  the  certain  riches  of  the 
Aztec  empire,  and  to  take  forcible  possession  of  the  country 
for  his  master  the  king  of  Spain.  It  will  help  to  explain 
the  exceeding  temerity  of  the  Spanish  commander,  when 
it  is  stated  that  Velasquez  countermanded  his  commission 
on  the  eve  of  the  departure  of  Cortez,  and  thus  the  latter 
felt  that  in  disobeying  orders,  he  must  either  go  forward  or 
perish. 

On  the  great  banner  which  they  carried,  appeared  the  figure 
of  a  large  cross,  with  the  inscription — "Let  us  follow  the 
cross,  for  under  this  sign  we  shall  conquer."  The  depen 
dence  of  Cortez  was  much  the  same  as  was  that  of  Mohammed  : 
the  first  followed  the  cross,  the  other  the  crescent,  but  their 
faith  alike  was  in  the  sword. 

Fire-arms  not  being  yet  in  general  use,  most  of  the  men 
(few  of  whom  were  of  the  cavalier  class)  were  armed  with 
cross-bows,  swords  and  spears.  There  were  also  ten  small 
cannon  and  a  number  of  horses — the  first  of  both  ever  seen 
in  that  country.  Montezuma  being  informed  of  the  prowess 
displayed  by  tlie  visitors,  sent  command  from  his  capital  for 
Cortez  and  his  company  to  depart.  To  make  the  request 
palatable,  he  accompanied  it  with  rich  presents  of  precious 
metals,  of  pearls  and  other  precious  stones,  bales  of  cotton 
cloth  of  exquisite  fineness,  and  many  articles  of  surprising 
brilliancy  and  art.  Cortez  had  grimly  and  truly  remarked  to 
the  Mexicans,  that  "  the  Spaniards  had  a  disease  of  the  heart 
which  could  only  be  cured  by  gold."  But  these  magnificent 


1519]  CORTEZ.  55 

gifts,  borne  to  the  invaders  on  the  shoulders  of  a  hundred 
men,  naturally  excited  their  cupidity  to  the  utmost. 

Being  joined  by  several  thousand  warriors  of  Tlascala,  a 
republic  hostile  to  Mexico,  Cortez  made  his  way  triumphantly 
to  the  capital,  and  was  there  courteously  received  by  Monte- 
zuma.  But  the  kindness  of  the  Aztec  was  repaid  with  perfidy 
by  the  "Christian,"  who  seized  him  in  his  palace,  and  kept 
him  more  than  six  months  a  prisoner.  In  the  struggle  which 
ensued,  Montezuma  was  wounded,  and  died  soon  afterwards ; 
but  the  Spaniards  were  driven  from  the  city,  with  the  loss  of 
all  their  muskets  and  artillery  and  many  of  their  men.  This 
reverse  obliged  the  survivors  to  retreat ;  yet,  being  attacked 
by  a  great  host  of  Mexicans,  who  had  pursued  them,  these 
latter  were  defeated.  Whereupon  the  invaders,  having  re 
ceived  some  reinforcements  of  Tlascalans,  as  well  as  of  their 
own  countrymen,  were  enabled  to  re-enter  the  city  after  it  had 
withstood  a  siege  of  three  months.  Guatimozin,  the  nephew 
and  successor  of  Montezuma,  was  treated  with  great  severity 
by  the  Spaniards,  and  finally  put  to  death.  The  ancient,  and 
once  glorious  empire  founded  by  the  Toltecs,  had  now  become 
a  province  of  Spain.  It  is  true,  the  religious  observances  of 
the  Mexicans  involved  a  loathsome,  sanguinary  rite — that  of  the 
sacrifice  of  human  victims  upon  the  high  altars  of  their  pyra 
mids  or  teocallis ;  and  this,  by  the  conquerors  was  eventually 
abolished.  But,  alas,  that  the  substitution  itself  should  have 
been  made  by  unrighteous  and  murderous  hands  ! 

The  year  that  Cortez  set  sail  for  Mexico  (1519)  Francisco 
de  Garay,  governor  of  Jamaica,  sent  out  a  squadron  of  four 
ships,  commanded  by  ALVAREZ  DE  PINEDA,  with  the  ostensible 
purpose  of  seeking  a  strait  to  the  west  of  Florida.  That 
peninsula  was  then  thought  to  be  an  island ;  but  finding  upon 
examination  that  such  was  not  the  case,  Pineda  continued 
westward,  critically  examining  the  ports  and  everything 
worthy  of  remark,  until  he  had  passed  down  the  Mexican 


HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES. 


coast  beyond  Panuco.  The  outlet  of  one  great  river — the 
Mississippi — was  especially  noticed  :  it  is  named  on  the  map 
of  the  pilots,  as  the  Espiritu  Santo.  These  discoveries  con 
nected  those  made  by  Ponce  de  Leon  with  those  of  Grijalva, 
and  thus  completed  the  circuit  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  De 


Garay,  like  De  Leon,  received  a  royal  edict  to  colonize  the 
new-found  region ;  but  as  he  coveted  only  that  part  which 
would  give  him  access  to  the  riches  of  Mexico,  he  became 
involved  in  a  dispute  with  Cortez  as  to  his  right  to  the  land 
about  the  Panuco  river,  and  was  killed  in  the  attempt  to 
establish  his  claim. 

In  1513,  NUNEZ  DE  BALBOA,  a  Spaniard,  crossed  the  narrow 
isthmus  of  Darien,  and  was  rewarded  by  the  discovery  of  the 


1525]  PIZARRO.  57 

Pacific  Ocean.  A  settlement  was  formed  a  few  years  later  at 
Panama,  and  from  there  several  attempts  were  made  to  ex 
plore  the  regions  of  South  America.  Finally,  in  1525,  an 
expedition  under  FRANCISCO  PIZARRO  discovered  the  rich  and 
populous  kingdom  of  Peru;  though  it  was  not  until  1531, 
after  obtaining  a  commission  as  governor  from  Charles  V., 
that  he  set  out  to  subdue  the  country. 

With  a  band  of  hardly  two  hundred  men,  Pizarro,  fortified  by 
royal  warrant,  invaded  the  territory  of  the  Inca,  Atahualpa. 
The  latter,  having  been  invited  to  an  interview,  was  ordered 
instantly  to  embrace  the  Christian  religion.  Upon  his  refusing 
to  acknowledge  a  creed  he  had  never  before  heard  of,  he  was 
made  a  prisoner,  and,  at  the  same  time,  not  less  than  four 
thousand  of  the  wonder-stricken  and  defenceless  attendants 
were  slain  by  the  merciless  invaders.  Pizarro  had  been  well 
instructed  in  the  school  of  Hernando  Cortez.  As  a  ransom 
for  his  life  and  liberty,  the  Peruvian  monarch  caused  a  room 
to  be  filled  with  treasures  of  silver  and  gold.  Their  value 
was  computed  to  exceed  seven  million  dollars.  The  con 
querors  took  the  ransom,  but  upon  the  charge  of  his  being 
an  usurper  and  idolater,  they  also  took  the  life  of  the  hap 
less  Inca.  They  then  quarrelled  amongst  themselves,  and 
Pizarro  himself  was  soon  afterwards  assassinated.  The  Peru 
vians,  under  their  new  Inca,  Huanca  Capac,  undertook  to  rid 
themselves  of  their  savage  oppressors ;  but  being  unsuccessful, 
their  kingdom,  like  that  of  Mexico,  became  also  a  helpless 
appendage  of  Spain. 

THE    FLORIDA     INTERIOR. 

The  Florida  of  the  early  Spaniards  included,  besides  the 

peninsula  now  known  by  that  name,  a  vague  extent  of  territory 

stretching  westwardly  an  indefinite  distance.     We  will  briefly 

trace  the  several  expeditions  by  which  that  country  and  its 

c* 


5 8  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1520 

including  boundaries  became  gradually  better  defined.  Of 
the  exploration  of  its  line  of  coast,  an  account  has  already 
been  given. 

The  harsh  treatment  of  the  native  islanders  of  San  Domingo 
by  the  successors  of  Columbus,  had  greatly  reduced  the  num 
ber  of  laborers  and  slaves  available  for  work  in  the  mines  and 
on  the  plantations.  How  rapid  the  reduction  had  been,  may 
be  gathered  from  the  statement  that  in  fifteen  years  their  num 
bers  had  decreased  from  one  million  to  sixty  thousand,  while 
in  fifty  years  from  the  time  of  the  Spanish  occupation,  there 
remained  but  two  hundred  Indians  in  Hispaniola.  Drawn 
from  the  life-blood  of  these  Caribs,  was  the  golden  product 
harvested  by  the  Spaniards — a  sum,  per  annum,  of  not  less 
than  two  and  a  half  million  dollars.  Enormous  fortunes  were 
soon  acquired,  resulting  in  a  display  of  splendor  at  home  (in 
Spain)  from  whence  came  numerous  fresh  tormentors,  flocking 
to  the  wretched  scene  of  misery  and  of  relentless  aggrandize 
ment.  When  the  yield  of  gold  decreased,  the  cultivation  of 
the  sugar-cane  was  introduced.  Alas  !  there  was  no  hope  for 
the  islanders :  the  gold  might  become  exhausted,  but  the  sap 
of  the  cane  would  spring  afresh,  a  perennial  fount  to  them  of 
bitterness  and  woe  ! 

The  poet  Montgomery  has  mournfully  portrayed  in  verse 
this  sad  work  of  inhumanity : 

O'erwhelmed  at  length  with  ignominious  toil, 
Mingling  their  barren  ashes  with  the  soil, 
Down  to  the  dust,  the  Carib  people  past 
Like  autumn  foliage  withering  in  the  blast : 
The  whole  race  sunk  beneath  the  oppressor's  rod 
And  left  a  blank  amongst  the  works  of  God. 

The  destruction  of  human  life  being  thus  early  so  fearful,  it 
became  urgently  necessary  that  the  destroyers  should  devise 
some  means  to  obtain  a  fresh  supply  of  victims.  Hence,  it 
was  not  long  after  the  mainland  had  been  discovered,  before 


1520]  THE  FLORIDA   INTERIOR.  59 

efforts  were  made  to  obtain  slaves  from  that  quarter.  The  first 
attempt  (1520)  at  this  nefarious  traffic,  was  that  of  VASQUEZ 
DE  AYLLON,  whose  two  ships,  after  leaving  the  Baharnas, 
sailed  towards  the  coast  northward  of  that  first  seen  by  Ponce 
de  Leon.  They  called  the  land  Chicora.  In  the  neighbor 
hood  of  St.^  Helena  Sound,  the  shyness  of  the  natives  was 
overcome  by  the  simulated  friendship  of  the  Spaniards.  Un 
suspectingly,  they  crowded  the  vessels,  eager  to  barter  for 
those  novel  trinkets  so  pleasing  to  the  taste  of  the  untutored 
savage ;  and  then,  at  a  signal  given,  the  sails  were  spread,  and 
the  ships  with  their  freight  of  new-made  slaves  steered  across 
to  San  Domingo.  But  it  was  a  sad  return ;  for  one  of  the 
vessels  foundered  at  sea,  and  the  other  reached  the  island  with 
its  cargo  of  captives  greatly  reduced  by  the  ravages  of  sick 
ness.  The  subsequent  attempt  of  Vasquez  to  obtain  possession 
of  his  province — for  which  he  had  received  the  royal  permit 
— resulted  disastrously.  The  Indians,  burning  with  the  re 
membrance  of  his  former  visit  when  their  friends  and  relatives 
had  been  kidnapped,  repulsed  the  invaders  with  loss. 

In  1525,  STEPHEN  GOMEZ,  a  native  of  Portugal,  but  em 
ployed  in  the  service  of  Spain,  having  obtained  a  commission 
to  search  for  a  northern  passage  to  India,  sailed  along  the 
New  England  coast  about  a  year  after  it  had  been  explored  by 
Verrazzani.  On  an  old  Spanish  map,  "  the  Land  of  Gomez" 
is  the  name  placed  upon  that  territory.  The  navigator  like 
wise  entered  the  bay  of  New  York,  and  sailed  along  the  Jersey 
coast  nearly  to  the  capes  of  the  Delaware.  His  voyage  had 
not  been  entirely  barren  of  profit,  as  he  shortly  returned  to 
Spain  with  a  cargo  of  peltry  and  of  captive  Indians— some 
slight  amends,  in  his  view,  for  the  failure  to  discover  the 
mythical  passage. 

This  Gomez  had  been  a  companion  of  the  navigator  MAGEL 
LAN,  who,  in  1520,  having  explored  the  east  coast  of  South 
America,  entered  the  stormy  straits  between  the  mainland  and 


60  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1526 

Terra  del  Fuego,  and  passing  thence  into  the  South  Pacific, 
steered  boldly  toward  India.  Magellan  died  on  the  voyage, 
but  his  ship — ably  guided  by  his  successor — realized  the  vision 
of  Columbus  that  the  world  could  be  circumnavigated,  as  the 
vessel  passed  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  thence  by 
the  track  of  Vasco  de  Gama  to  Spain  again. 

The  expedition  of  PAMPHILO  DE  NARVAEZ  in  1*528,  started 
out,  not  to  obtain  slaves  from  the  coast,  but  to  secure  the 
fancied  treasures  of  the  interior.  To  the  excited  imaginations 
of  the  Spaniards,  Florida,  like  Mexico,  contained  its  mines 
of  inexhaustible  wealth ;  and  thus  it  happened  while  Pizarro 
in  tropical  Peru  was  worshipping  naught  but  Mammon  though 
proclaiming  a  crucified  Christ,  Narvaez  and  his  three  hundred 
men,  landing  on  the  coast  of  Florida,  and  advancing  into  its 
forests  of  pine  and  palmetto,  threatened  the  Indians  with 
destruction  unless  they  accepted  the  Pope  and  the  Emperor  as 
their  masters  by  divine  right.  But  the  gold  which  he  chiefly 
came  to  seek,  was  not  to  be  found.  Instead  of  it  came 
exceeding  fatigue  and  the  gnawing  pangs  of  hunger,  with 
sickness  and  death  to  many.  Their  horses  also  giving  out, 
the  famished  soldiers  fed  upon  their  flesh.  The  native  town 
of  Appalachee,  of  which  they  had  heard,  and  where  they  had 
hoped  to  obtain  rich  booty,  they  found  to  be  but  a  little 
village  of  wretched  wigwams. 

Through  a  land  of  marsh,  and  of  endless  forests,  and  of 
salt  bayous  reaching  inland  from  the  sea,  they  came  at  last  to 
the  harbor  of  St.  Mark.  Here  they  had  expected  succor,  but 
no  friendly  sail  was  seen  to  relieve  their  desponding  sight. 
Upon  the  flesh  of  their  horses,  and  maize  plundered  from  the 
natives,  they  sustained  life,  while  constructing  boats  to  carry 
them  away  from  that  unhappy  land.  Their  stirrups  and  spurs, 
now  useless,  and  other  implements  of  iron,  were  beaten  into 
spikes  and  saws  and  axes  ;  the  fibre  of  palmetto  answered  for 
oakum  to  caulk  the  boats'  seams,  and  the  pitch  from  pine- 


1S39~]  THE   SEVEN  CITIES   OF  CIS  OLA.  6 1 

trees  to  cover  the  same.  Twisted  horse-hair  and  the  palmetto 
served  them  for  rigging;  of  their  shirts  were  made  sails; 
while,  as  a  substitute  for  water-casks,  they  used  the  dressed 
skins  of  the  horses. 

Having  constructed  five  boats,  each  upwards  of  thirty  feet 
in  length,  they  departed  from  St.  Mark's  and  followed  the 
coast  toward  Mexico.  But  it  was  not  long  before  they  were 
overtaken  by  a  storm,  which  either  wrecked  the  boats  or  drove 
them  on  shore.  Narvaez  was  no  more  heard  of.  There  re 
mained  but  four  survivors,  one  of  whom  named  CABEZA  DE 
VACA,  a  man  of  great  endurance  and  self-possession,  acted -as 
leader.  The  narrative  which  he  wrote  of  their  wanderings  is 
a  remarkable  one,  and  tells  how  they  lived  several  years  with 
the  tribes  of  the  Mississippi,  then  made  their  escape,  and  after 
many  vicissitudes,  journeying  westward  by  the  waters  of  the 
Arkansas  and  Red  rivers  they  came  to  New  Mexico  and 
Sonora,  and  thence  by  the  GulfjDf  California  to  the  city  of 
Mexico. 

It  was  soon  after  their  arrival  in  Mexico  or  New  Spain,  that 
a  notable  expedition  was  sent  out,  in  1539,  by  Mendoza,  then 
viceroy,  to  search  for  the  "Seven  Cities  of  Cibola,"  the  ru 
mors  of  whose  wonderful  terraced  houses  and  palaces,  and  of 
lavish  riches  exceeding  those  of  Mexico,  had  recently  reached 
the  itching  ears  of  the  Spaniards.  Three  hundred  and  fifty 
men  of  the  proudest  families  of  Spain,  followed  the  banner 
of  the  youthful  commander,  FRANCISCO  DE  CORONADCK  As  an 
aid  to  the  land  force,  Pedro  de  Alarcon,  with  several  vessels, 
was  sent  up  the  coast  and  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  Alarcon 
discovered  the  river  Colorado,  and  though  it  was  with  great 
difficulty  that  his  vessels  could  make  headway  against  the 
current  of  that  rapid  stream,  he  really  ascended  it  a  distance 
of  at  least  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles.  Failing  to  hear 
anything  of  the  movements  of  the  land  force,  he  returned 
southward  to  New  Spain. 

6 


62  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1539 

Meanwhile,  Coronado  had  advanced  to  the  Gila  river,  and 
thence  by  rapid  marches  east  and  northward  through  a  desert 
country,  to  the  elevated  region  of  the  Sierra  Madre.  If  the 
reader  will  examine  his  map,  he  will  see  where  the  road  from 
the  city  of  Santa  Fe  leaves  the  Rio  Grande  at  Albuquerque, 
and  crosses  the  prolongation  of  the  Madre  Mountains  by  the 
Zuni  Pass.  Near  the  foot  of  the  western  declivity  of  the 
pass,  but  built  above  a  precipitous  rock,  is  the  village  of  Zuni. 
Here  Coronado  and  his  cavaliers,  with  keen  disappointment, 
beheld  one  of  the  famous  cities  of  Cibola  !  Maddened  with 
hunger  and  vexation,  the  Spaniards  mounted  the  rock  with  a 
resistless  impetuosity,  overcame  its  defenders,  and  plundered 
the  village — but  neither  gold  nor  treasures  of  any  kind  did  it 
yield. 

A  company  was  sent  out  from  here  to  search  for  the  other 
cities,  but  they  soon  returned  with  the  report  that  these  latter 
presented  no  more  promising  objects  of  rapacity  than  did  the 
place  already  taken — that  they  were  inhabited  only  by  poor 
"village  Indians"  (the  Moquis)  who  cultivated  maize,  and 
offered  to  them  presents  of  their  humble  products.  A  second 
detachment,  after  an  irregular  march  of  twenty  days  across  an 
arid  waste,  came  to  an  upland  plain  in  which  they  found  the 
magnificent,  deep-cut  canons  of  the  upper  Colorado.  With 
amazement  they  gazed  down  those  precipitous  cliffs,  and 
beheld  where  the  river,  that  raced  along  on  its  rocky  bed  in 
the  abyss  far  below,  appeared  to  the  eyes  no  greater  in  size 
than  a  babbling  rivulet. 

Before  this  party  had  returned,  a  third  was  sent  out  by 
Coronado,  which  crossed  the  pass  of  Zuni,  and  came  to  the 
valley  of  the  Rio  Grande.  They  had  heard  of  a  province 
called  Cicuye,  where  were  cattle  having  soft  hair  that  curled 
like  wool.  They  found  the  province,  five  days  farther  to  the 
eastward  on  the  river  Pecos,  but  there  was  nothing  to  repay 
their  toil  except  the  report  that  the  real  land  of  the  buffalo, 


1539]  FERDINAND   DE  SO  TO.  63 

where  also  gold  and  silver  were  plentiful  indeed,  was  to  be 
found  still  farther  toward  the  sun-rising.  Coronado,  himself, 
determined  to  seek  this  land  of  promised  plenty.  In  nine 
days  they  reached  the  haunt  of  the  bison :  the  boundless 
plains  and  the  grazing  herds,  the  countless  prairie-dogs  and 
burrowing  owls,  the  hunting  tribes  of  nomad  Indians  dwelling 
in  tents  and  moving  hither  and  thither  where  the  buffalo  led 
them.  Many  days  they  spent  in  the  fruitless  search  for  a  rich 
kingdom  like  Mexico  or  Peru.  At  last,  but  reluctantly,  they 
gave  up  the  quest,  and,  upon  the  banks  of  a  large  river  flowing 
towards  the  east — probably  the  Arkansas — a  cross  was  raised 
which  bore  the  inscription :  "Thus  far  came  Francisco  Vasquez 
de  Coronado,  general  of  an  expedition." 

DISCOVERY  OF  THE  MISSISSIPPI. 

While  Coronado,  west  of  the  Mississippi,  was  solving  the 
unsatisfactory  problem  of  the  locality  and  opulence  of  the 
Seven  Cities  of  Cibola,  one  who  had  been  a  companion  of 
Pizarro  in  Peru  and  a  sharer  of  his  plunder,  was  exploring  the 
territory  east  of  that  great,  and  as  yet  unknown,  river.  It 
was  not  the  love  of  geographical  discovery,  but  the  mercenary 
lust  for  gold — fired  in  part  by  the  delusive  narrative  of  Cabeza 
de  Vaca — which  prompted  FERDINAND  DE  SOTO  to  solicit  from 
the  king  of  Spain  the  privilege  of  undertaking  the  conquest 
of  the  extensive  territory  then  .known  as  Florida.  The  king 
granted  his  request,  as  well  as  the  government  of  the  island 
of  Cuba. 

The  plan  of  De  Soto  was  received  with  great  enthusiasm, 
and  noblemen  and  gentlemen  of  means  contended  for  the 
privilege  of  joining  his  standard.  With  six  hundred  selected 
soldiers,  De  Soto  sailed  from  Spain  for  Cuba,  received  some 
reinforcements  at  that  island,  and  shortly  landed  them  at  the 
bay  of  Espiritu  Santo  (now  Tampa  Bay),  on  the  west  side  of 


64  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1539 

the  Florida  peninsula.  As  they  disembarked  and  arranged 
themselves  in  order  of  march,  they  presented  a  "  gallant 
array"  of  men-at-arms — their  burnished  accoutrements  and 
weapons  glancing  in  the  sun — pennons  flying  and  trumpets 
sounding — the  impatient  steeds,  prancing  and  eager  for  the 
onward  march.  There  was  a  show  of  religion  too,  for  the 
commander  declared  that  the  enterprise  was  undertaken  for 
the  glory  of  God,  and  appeared  to  be  under  his  superintending 
care.  Though  there  were  monks  and  priests  with  this  pano 
plied  company,  to  attend  to  the  souls  of  the  ignorant  Indians, 
there  were  also  fetters  to  bind  their  bodies,  and  cruel  blood 
hounds,  as  auxiliaries  in  the  work. 

It  was  in  the  summer  of  1539  that  the  adventurers  began 
their  march.  But  the  glory  of  their  first  appearance  was  soon 
marred ;  and  as  week  by  week  they  journeyed  on  through 
interminable  forests  and  oozy,  tangled  swamps,  often  misled 
by  guides,  and  never  reaching  the  goal  of  their  hopes,  the 
company  grew  dispirited  and  would  fain  have  returned.  But 
the  iron  will  of  their  leader  changed  not ;  he  kept  on,  relent 
less,  while  life  lasted.  In  this  extremity  the  captive  Indians 
suffered  still  worse  than  the  invaders  :  with  iron  collars  around 
their  necks,  or  led  in  chains,  they  were  condemned  to  grind 
the  maize,  and  upon  their  shoulders  the  baggage  was  laden. 
The  misery  the  Spaniards  themselves  endured,  they  seem  to 
have  re-inflicted  tenfold. 

They  traversed  a  great  part  of  Georgia  and  Alabama — the 
upper  sections  as  well  as  those  near  the  gulf — and  upon  ar 
riving  at  Ochus  (now  Pensacola)  received  some  much-needed 
supplies  from  Cuba.  Farther  west,  about  the  bay  of  Mobile,  the 
Indians  were  numerous  and  hostile,  and  the  country  moreover 
was  poor;  so  De  Soto  again  advanced  into  the  north,  still  near- 
ing  the  Mississippi.  In  this  region  they  passed  the  winter,  and 
when  spring  opened  and  they  were  ready  to  resume  their 
march,  a  demand  was  made  upon  the  Chickasaw  Indians  that 


( '          '  41  v  < 

1 540  DISCOVERY  OF   THE   MIS^S^PPL      ^/y,65 

two  hundred  men  of  that  tribe  should  be  designated  jf^borden-      / 
bearers  for  the  whites.     This  the  natives  objected  to,  ami/re*- 
sented  the  invitation  by  burning  at  night  the  lodges  of  the* 
Spaniards.     Several  of  the  latter  lost  their  lives,  a  number  or 
the  horses  were  consumed,  and   much   of  the  clothing  and 
weapons  were  also  lost.     Not  long  after  this  disaster,  but  in 
the  third  year  of  their  eventful  wandering,  they  reached  the 
banks  of  the  Mississippi. 

It  has  been  narrated  on  a  preceding  page  that  the  expedition 
sent  out  in  1519  by  De  Garay,  and  commanded  by  Pineda,  had 
specially  noticed  the  outlet  of  the  Mississippi,  which  they  marked 
on  their  map  as  the  Espiritu  Santo.  It  is  strange  to  note  that  the 
long  period  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  years  elapsed  from  the 
time  that  De  Soto  now  beheld  it,  until  the  river  was  re-discovered 
by  a  French  Jesuit,  Marquette. 

To  cross  the  broad  expanse  of  waters,  deep,  rapid,  and 
bearing  on  its  turbid  current  a  constant  succession  of  trees  and 
drift-wood,  was  a  formidable  undertaking  for  the  Spaniards, 
so  that  a  month  elapsed  before  they  had  constructed  barges 
staunch  enough  to  carry  them  safely  to  the  western  shore. 
This  accomplished,  the  company  continued  their  march  until 
they  approached  the  prairies ;  but  perceiving  that  they  would 
not  be  repaid  for  any  farther  toil  and  research  in  that  direc 
tion,  they  changed  their  course  to  the  south-eastward,  following 
the  line  of 'the  Washita  and  Red  rivers  until  they  again  arrived 
at  the  Mississippi. 

They  had  now  entered  a  sickly  and  almost  impassable  re 
gion,  cut  up  into  numberless  bayous,  and  covered  with  dense 
woods  and  canebrake.  Their  progress  became  exceedingly 
slow  and  laborious,  the  men  were  thoroughly  disheartened, 
and  at  last  De  Soto  himself,  borne  down  by  dejection,  and 
suffering  from  a  malignant  fever,  died  miserably,  and  was 
buried  beneath  the  swift-rolling  tide  of  the  Mississippi. 

The  adventurers  then  determined  on  returning  to  New 
6* 


66  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1541 

Spain  by  any  way  that  might  open,  and,  despairing  of  the 
river  route,  turned  their  steps  westward,  until  they  came 
again  to  the  prairies.  But  they  found  the  march  overland 
would  also  be  impracticable ;  whereupon,  forming  the  resolu 
tion  to  build  themselves  boats,  they  once  more  came  back  to 
the  river,  and  set  to  work  at  what  seemed  the  last  resource. 
Seven  barges,  with  sails,  were  constructed  and  launched, 
and,  embarking  therein  they  descended  the  river,  and  in 
seventeen  days  reached  the  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  when,  spreading 
the  sails  of  their  frail  vessels,  they  at  last  arrived  in  safety  at 
the  Spanish  settlement  on  the  river  Panuco. 

We  may  better  understand  the  perverted  religious  spirit  which 
was  manifested  by  De  Soto  and  his  warriors  by  perusing  an  address 
sent  by  PEDRO  DE  SANTANDER  to  King  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  in 
1557,  in  which  he  reminds  the  king  that  the  latter  should  act  the 
good  shepherd,  to  tend  and  lead  out  the  sheep  that  "  may  have 
been  snatched  away  by  the  dragon,  the  Demon.  These  pastures," 
Santander  astutely  observes,  "  are  the  New  World  wherein  is  com 
prised  Florida,  now  in  possession  of  the  Demon,  and  here  he 
makes  himself  adored  and  revered.  This  is  the  Land  of  Promise, 
possessed  by  idolaters,  the  Amorite,  Amalekite,  Moabite  and 
Canaanite.  This  is  the  land  promised  by  the  Eternal  Father  to 
the  Faithful,  since  we  are  commanded  by  God  in  the  holy  Scrip 
tures  to  take  it  from  them,  being  idolaters,  and,  by  reason  of  their 
idolatry  and  sin,  to  put  them  all  to  the  knife,  leaving  no  living 
thing  save  maidens  and  children,  their  cities  robbed  and  sacked, 
their  walls  and  houses  levelled  to  the  earth."  To  carry  out  this 
plan,  Santander  proposed  to  occupy  Florida  at  various  points  with 
colonists — such  as  Tallahassee  and  Tampa  Bay — and  to  name  the 
cities  Philippina,  Csesarea,  etc. 

An  attempt  by  CANCELED,  a  Dominican  monk,  and  others 
of  that  fraternity  (1547),  to  convert  the  Florida  natives  to 
the  Romish  faith,  resulted  disastrously:  weapons  of  steel 
had  already  closed  the  way,  which  otherwise  the  tokens  of 
love  might  have  readily  opened. 


CHAPTER    VI. 

THE   HUGUENOTS— THEIR   MISTAKES   AND   MISFOR 
TUNES. 

1555—1566. 


COLIGNY,   THE   HUGUENOT   CHIEF.      VILLE-GAGNON. 

IN  the  summer  of  1555 — the  same  year  in  which  Charles 
the  Fifth  gave  to  his  son  Philip  the  Second,  of  Spain,  the  prov 
inces  of  the  Netherlands— there  sailed  from  Havre,  in  France, 
two  vessels,  commanded  by  a  certain  NICHOLAS  DE  VILLE- 
GAGNON.  The  commission  under  which  he  sailed  was  of  a 
peculiar  nature ;  and  the  better  to  understand  the  man  and 
his  errand,  it  will  be  well  to  glance  at  the  then  condition  of 
France,  which,  with  its  venal  and  voluptuous  court,  and 
swayed  by  factions  of  nobles,  bishops  and  cardinals,  was  in  a 
sad  state  of  political  and  religious  ferment. 

Francis  the  First,  the  unsuccessful  antagonist  of  Charles 
the  Fifth,  had,  at  his  death,  been  succeeded  on  the  throne  of 
France  by  his  son  Henry  II.  The  sceptre  of  power,  however, 
really  rested  with  Catharine  de  Medicis,  the  consort  of  Henry, 
an  ambitious,  intriguing  and  unprincipled  woman  ;  while  the 
family  of  Guise,  powerful  and  unscrupulous,  were  the  promi 
nent  leaders  of  the  Papists. 

The  principles  of  the  Reformation  were  rapidly  permeating 
the  country,  and  notwithstanding  that  men  and  women  were 
tortured,  and  burnt  at  the  stake,  the  so-called  "heretical 
doctrines"  made  headway,  and  the  party  of  Rorae  became 
thoroughly  alarmed.  Geneva,  the  home  of  Calvin,  became  a 

67 


68  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1555 

city  of  refuge  for  many  of  those  who  had  embraced  the  re 
formed  faith ;  and  these  were  known  by  the  name  of  Hugue 
nots.  Their  principles  were  those  of  Calvin — stern,  and  to  a 
certain  extent,  intolerant;  and,  when  the  storm  burst,  it 
became  manifest  that,  unlike  the  primitive  Christians  who 
patiently  suffered  the  fires  and  the  rack  of  persecution,  they 
too,  like  the  Romanists,  could  be  carnally  aggressive.  Their 
acknowledged  leader  was  CASPAR  DE  COLIGNY,  Admiral  of 
France :  a  man  of  calm  and  resolute  disposition,  honest  in 
purpose,  firm  in  his  religious  convictions,  and,  by  education, 
prepared  to  maintain  the  same  at  the  point  of  the  sword. 

The  Huguenots  claimed  such  supporters  as  the  prince  of  Conde 
the  dukes  of  Montmorency  and  Navarre;  yet  with  these  latter,  the 
attainment  of  their  selfish  interests  probably  weighed  as  much  as 
did  their  attachment  to  the  reformed  faith.  The  friendship  of 
nobles,  who  are  apt  to  rely  on  their  own  power  and  influence,  rather 
than  on  the  Almighty  arm,  has  ever  proved  a  weakness  to  the  ad 
vancement  of  Christian  Truth.  "  It  is  better,"  says  the  Psalmist, 
"to  trust  in  the  Lord  than  to  put  confidence  in  princes." 

While  Coligny  was  in  a  state  of  perplexity,  concerned  for 
the  safety  and  well-being  of  his  co-religionists,  there  came  to 
him  Nicholas  de  Ville-gagnon,  already  mentioned.  He  was 
one  who  would  be  styled  a  "  versatile  genius  :"  an  able  scholar 
and  linguist,  apt  at  controversy  with  tongue  and  pen,  by  pro 
fession  a  seaman  and  soldier,  vice-admiral  of  Brittany  and  a 
commander  of  the  knights  of  Malta.  Restless  in  spirit,  as  in 
body,  unstable  as  well  as  ambitious,  he  was  now  become  a 
contender  for  the  Protestant  faith.  At  his  interview  with 
Coligny,  he  broached  the  project  of  establishing  a  tropical 
empire  in  the  New  World,  to  be  an  asylum  for  the  persecuted, 
free  from  mischievous  plots  of  monks  and  cardinals,  and  es 
pecially  of  that  Lorraine,  of  the  house  of  Guise,  who  then 
wore  the  red  cassock  and  hat.  The  admiral  gave  a  ready  ear 
to  the  scheme  of  Ville-gagnon,  though  the  latter  had  already 


1555]  COLIGNY,  THE  HUGUENOT  CHIEF.  69 

plied  King  Henry  with  very  different  arguments,  chief  of 
which  was  the  desirability  of  appropriating  some  of  the  South 
American  possessions  of  the  too-grasping  Spaniards  and 
Portuguese. 

The  king  and  his  admiral,  though  biassed  by  different 
motives,  had  both  assented  to  the  undertaking.  Although 
most  of  the  emigrants  were  Huguenots,  there  was  unfortu 
nately  a  counter-element  composed  of  piratical  sailors  from 
Breton  and  Normandy,  and  of  turbulent  young  nobles,  idle 
and  indigent.  Upon  arriving  in  the  harbor  of  Rio  JANEIRO 
(1555)  the  men  were  landed  upon  an  island,  where  huts  and 
earthworks  were  constructed.  The  fort  they  called  Coligny ; 
the  continent  received  the  name  of  Antarctic  France.  That 
the  ill-assorted  colonists  did  not  lead  a  pleasant  life  of  con 
cord,  may  be  readily  inferred.  Their  commander,  with  a 
stern  determination  to  reduce  the  refractory  to  implicit  obe 
dience  and  discipline,  resorted  to  the  whip  and  pillory,  and 
other  severe  measures.  The  men  conspired  to  poison  or 
murder  him,  but  the  plot  being  revealed,  their  purposes  were 
foiled. 

In  the  meantime  the  two  vessels  had  returned  to  France, 
carrying  despatches  from  Ville-gagnon  of  so  inviting  a  nature, 
that  in  the  following  year  a  second  company,  chiefly  of  Hu 
guenots,  embarked  for  the  Brazilian  settlement.  After  the 
expedition  had  arrived  at  its  destination,  all  for  a  time  went 
well.  The  men  busied  themselves  about  the  construction  of 
the  fort,  and  there  were  daily  sermons  and  prayers — Ville- 
gagnon  being  always  present,  kneeling  on  a  velvet  cus'hion 
brought  after  him  by  a  page.  But  it  was  not  long  before  his 
aptitude  for  polemics  drew  him  into  a  sharp  controversy  upon 
points  of  faith,  with  the  newly-arrived  ministers;  and  this 
resulted  in  filling  the  fort  with  wranglings  and  feuds.  The 
conduct  of  Ville-gagnon  soon  became  exceedingly  intolerant ; 
he  professed  to  have  been  deceived  in  Calvin,  whom  he  now 


7o  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1562 

pronounced  "a  frightful  heretic;"  three  zealous  adherents 
of  the  Calvinist  doctrines  he  caused  to  be  dragged  to  the  edge 
of  a  rock,  and  cast  into  the  sea;  while  the  ministers  were 
glad  to  escape  to  a  vessel,  which,  loading  with  Brazil  wood, 
was  about  to  sail  for  France. 

Pitiful  was  the  experience  which  awaited  them.  The  vessel 
being  overtaken  by  storms  was  delayed  in  its  passage,  the 
water  in  the  casks  failed  and  their  provisions  gave  out,  and, 
tossed  upon  a  tempestuous  sea,  they  seemed  doomed  to  a 
miserable  death.  "In  their  famine  they  chewed  the  Brazil 
wood  with  which  the  vessel  was  laden,  devoured  every  scrap 
of  leather,  singed  and  ate  the  horn  of  lanterns,  hunted  rats 
through  the  hold  and  sold  them  to  each  other  at  enormous 
prices."  At  length  when  overcome  with  sickness,  and  scarcely 
able  to  move  a  limb,  to  their  joy  they  descried  the  coast  of 
Brittany.  Ville-gagnon,  himself,  soon  returned  to  France, 
leaving  the  wretched  colony  to  its  fate.  The  fort  was  captured 
by  the  Portuguese,  and  the  garrison  either  slain  or  dispersed 
among  the  Indians  on  the  mainland. 

More  than  half  a  century  previous  to  the  coming  of  the  Hugue 
nots,  the  mariners  of  Portugal  had  discovered  and  claimed  this 
country  for  their  king  ;  and  although  it  is  true  that  this,  their  claim, 
was  grounded  on  no  substantial  foundation  of  purchase  from  the 
native  Brazilians,  yet  Coligny  and  his  coadjutors  erred  when  they 
established  a  settlement — and  a  menacing  one  as  well — without  any 
consultation  as  to  the  wishes  of  the  Portuguese.  The  shadowy 
"right  of  discovery"  was  at  least  partially  recognized  among  mari 
time  nations ;  so  that,  in  legal  parlance,  the  Huguenots  should  have 
*  first  "extinguished  the  prior  lien"  (if  the  Portuguese  were  willing 
to  sell),  and  then  have  treated  with  the  aboriginal  inhabitants  for  a 
clear  title  to  the  land. 

RIBAULT   AND    LAUDONNIERE. 

More  fortunate  was  Coligny  in  his  second  choice  of  a  com 
mander,  when,  in  1562,  he  directed  JEAN  RIBAULT,  of  Dieppe, 


1562]  RIBAVLT.  71 

to  sail  with  two  vessels  to  America ;  there  to  use  all  diligence 
in  the  search  for  a  wilderness-home  for  the  Huguenots.  But 
it  must  be  confessed  that  Ribault's  company  of  soldiers  and 
sailors  and  a  few  young  nobles,  was  but  little  better  consti 
tuted  to  secure  stability,  than  was  that  of  Ville-gagnon.  He 
sailed  for  the  northern  continent  of  America,  which  was 
reached  below  the  thirtieth  parallel  of  latitude,  the  coast  of 
Florida.  The  following  day  they  landed  at  the  mouth  of  a 
large  river — the  St.  John's — but  called  by  them  the  River  of 
May,  for  it  was  on  May-day  that  they  discovered  it. 

They  had  naught  to  fear  from  the  Indians ;  the  squaws  and 
children  approaching,  strewed  the  earth  with  laurel  boughs, 
and  seated  themselves  amongst  the  strangers,  whom  they  sup 
posed,  when  they  saw  them  kneeling  on  the  shore,  to  be  chil 
dren  of  the  sun.  The  old  chronicle  of  the  voyage  dwells 
with  rapturous  language  upon  the  delightful  aspect  of  nature — 
the  verdurous  meadows  and  leafy  woods — the  aromatic  odors 
of  pine  and  magnolia — the  grazing  deer — the  strange  birds 
and  water-fowl — while  it  quaintly  adds,  that  "to  be  short,  it 
is  a  thing  unspeakable  to  consider  the  thinges  that  bee  seen 
there,  and  shall  be  found  more  and  more  in  this  incomperable 
lande."  Then  they  planted  a  stone  pillar,  graven  with  the 
lily-flower  of  France,  and,  embarking,  continued  northward, 
naming  the  streams  which  they  passed,  the  Seine,  the  Loire, 
the  Charente,  etc.,  from  the  rivers  of  their  own  land. 

It  was  late  in  the  month  when  they  came  to  that  territory 
called  Chicora  by  the  Spaniard,  De  Ayllon,  when,  forty  years 
before,  he  sailed  among  its  inlets  in  search  of  slaves  for  the 
mines  of  San  Domingo.  Seeing  a  fine,  commodious  haven, 
they  named  it  Port  Royal.  Passing  Hilton  Head  at  its  en 
trance,  they  sailed  into  the  Broad  river.  All  being  well 
pleased  with  the  aspect  of  the  country,  Ribault  decided  to 
erect  a  fort,  leave  part  of  the  company  in  charge,  and  to  go 
back  to  France  for  reinforcements.  Charles-Fort  was  forth- 


72  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1562 

with  built,  supplied  with  ammunition  and  stores,  and  thirty 
men  chosen  to  remain. 

The  injunction  of  Ribault  that  they  should  use  all  gentle 
ness  and  kindness  towards  the  children  of  the  forest  was  for 
awhile  pretty  well  observed.  They  had  everything  their  own 
way,  visiting  in  turn  the  villages  of  the  neighboring  chiefs, 
feasting  on  their  hominy,  beans  and  game,  and  not  refusing 
the  gifts  with  which  their  dusky  entertainers  loaded  them. 
When,  near  the  time  of  the  Indian  harvest,  their  supplies 
became  exhausted,  the  generous  natives  still  brought  them  food 
as  long  as  their  own  lasted. 

But  presently  discord  arose  in  the  camp.  The  colonists, 
maddened  by  the  domineering  behavior  of  the  commander 
in  charge,  who  had  hung  one  of  their  number  and  banished 
another  to  a  lonely  island,  finally  attacked  the  chief  and  mur 
dered  him.  The  bloody  deed  done,  and  themselves  threat 
ened  with  famine ;  the  land  of  their  choice  no  longer  the 
beautiful  place  it  had  seemed  when  they  came;  weary  of  the 
life  they  led,  and  dreaming  day  by  day  of  home,  they  at  last 
determined  to  build  a  vessel  and  make  the  attempt  to  return 
to  France. 

What  a  strange  sight,  to  behold  these  indolent  and  quarrel 
some  beings,  so  suddenly  changed  to  active  artisans — erecting 
a  forge,  making  tools,  hewing  dewn  trees,  chipping  and  ham 
mering  at  beams  and  blocks,  caulking  the  seams,  and  covering 
them  with  the  smoking  pitch  !  It  is  said  of  them,  that,  "  had 
they  put  forth,  to  maintain  themselves  at  Port  Royal,  the 
energy  and  resource  which  they  exerted  to  escape  from  it, 
they  might  have  laid  the  corner-stone  of  a  solid  colony." 
Embarking  in  their  frail  craft,  and  spreading  the  patch-work 
sails,  they  made  good  progress  for  several  days ;  then  there 
was  a  long  calm,  and  the  food  and  water  failed,  their  shoes 
and  leather  jerkins  were  devoured,  and  in  their  dire  need,  one 
of  their  own  number  was  sacrificed  for  food.  This  dreadful 


1564]  LAUDONNI&RE.  73 

repast  sustained  them,  until,  when  near  the  French  coast,  they 
were  succored  by  the  crew  of  an  English  barque. 

In  France  there  was  at  this  time  the  hollow  form  of  a  truce 
between  the  disputing  factions,  and  Coligny  being  in  favor  at 
the  court,  was  enabled  to  send  out  another  American  expedi 
tion,  in  the  summer  of  1564.  This  was  placed  under  the 
command  of  RENE  DE  LAUDONNIERE,  a  good  marine  officer, 
and  of  fair  reputation  otherwise,  who  had  taken  part  in 
Ribault's  unfortunate  undertaking.  But  the  men  who  accom 
panied  him  were  of  the  same  sort  as  those  who  had  gone 
before;  there  were  soldiers  and  seekers  of  fortune,  some 
artisans  and  tradesmen,  but  the  hardy  yeomen,  a  necessary 
element  of  colonial  prosperity,  were  yet  wanting. 

Avoiding  the  haven  of  Port  Royal,  of  disastrous  memory, 
they  directed  their  course  to  the  St.  John's,  or  River  of  May  ; 
and  on  the  south  bank  of  that  stream,  five  miles  above  its 
mouth,  they  built  Fort  Caroline — so  called  in  honor  of 
Charles  IX.,  then  king  of  France.  The  fort,  which  was  close 
to  an  elevation,  now  known  as  St.  John's  Bluff,  was  constructed 
in  the  shape  of  a  triangle,  with  bastions  at  the  three  corners, 
a  parade  ground  in  the  centre,  the  buildings  for  lodging  and 
storage  around  its  inner  sides.  The  river  flowed  in  front,  and 
there  were  protecting  ditches  on  the  other  two  sides.  But 
why  the  need  of  a  fort,  seeing  that  the  Indians  were  friendly, 
and  that  they,  the  Huguenots,  professed  to  seek  an  asylum 
from  persecution?  The  reason  was,  because  they  occupied  the 
Florida  claimed  by  Spain  ;  and  because  their  desires  were  far 
more  toward  the  gold  mines  of  the  interior,  which  they  might 
have  to  fight  for,  than  they  were  toward  that  "better  land" 
where  persecution  or  other  ills  are  never  known. 

The  neighboring  Indians,  who   were   worshippers   of  the 

sun,  and  lived  in  huts  thatched  with  palmetto,  though  friendly 

to  the  whites  were  at  enmity  with  two  tribes  on  the  south  and 

west.     Laudonniere,  in  an  evil  hour,  promised  to  aid  them 

D  7 


74  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1564 

against  their  enemies  up  the  river.  But  in  the  meantime,  an 
officer,  whom  he  had  sent  with  a  boat's  crew  to  the  chief  of 
the  upper  tribe,  twice  assisted  him  in  a  raid  against  his 
enemies,  hoping  thereby  to  gain  the  rumored  gold  of  the 
Appalachee  Mountains.  Thus  it  happened  that  the  adven 
turers  at  Fort  Caroline  incurred  the  distrust  and  the  hate  of 
their  neighbors,  so  that  when,  shortly  afterwards,  they  were 
greatly  in  want  of  provisions,  the  natives,  refusing  to  venture 
within  the  fort,  required  the  whites  to  come  out  to  them  in 
boats  on  the  river. 

Meanwhile,  within  the  fort,  discontent  and  jealousies  were 
rife.  There  was  one,  Roquette,  who  asserted  that  he  knew 
of  mines  of  gold  and  silver,  many  leagues  up  the  St.  John's, 
and  which,  he  covertly  asserted,  would  yield  to  every  one  of 
them  an  immense  fortune,  if  they  could  but  put  Laudonniere 
out  of  the  way.  Their  wicked  schemes  to  compass  his  death 
proving  unsuccessful,  advantage  was  taken  of  a  time  when  he 
was  suffering  from  illness  to  imprison  him.  But  the  malcon 
tents  had  now  concocted  a  more  likely  method  of  making 
themselves  rich,  than  that  of  exploring  the  Everglades  for  the 
mines  of  Roquette :  in  other  words,  they  proposed  to  become 
pirates. 

Accordingly,  having  armed  and  supplied  two  small  vessels 
with  cannon,  munitions  and  stores,  the  mutineers  set  sail 
toward  the  islands  of  the  Spanish  main.  They  secured  a 
number  of  prizes  and  took  much  booty,  but,  while  rejoicing 
in  their  high  career,  were  surprised  by  several  armed  vessels, 
and  were  glad  to  make  their  escape,  empty-handed,  from  the 
clutches  of  the  incensed  Spaniards.  Upon  their  return  to 
Fort  Caroline,  Laudonniere  ordered  a  court-martial ;  all  were 
found  guilty,  though  the  ring-leaders  only  were  sentenced  to 
be  shot. 

The  colonists  at  this  time  were  threatened  with  starvation. 
Gold  and  conquest  having  been  their  prime  objects,  not  an 


1564]  MENENDEZ.  75 

acre  of  the  soil  had  been  tilled;  while,  from  the  Indians,  who 
were  hostile,  as  well  as  anxious  for  them  to  depart,  but  little 
succor  could  be  expected.  Suffering  from  want,  and  despairing 
of  the  realization  of  their  dreams,  they  were  about  to  depart, 
when  relief  appeared  from  a  very  unexpected  quarter.  It  was 
the  arrival  of  the  ships  of  Sir  John  Hawkins.  The  "  father 
of  the  English  slave-trade"  had  just  sold  at  a  great  profit,  to 
the  Spaniards  of  San  Domingo,  a  cargo  of  negroes  kidnapped 
in  Guinea ;  and  now  had  merely  visited  the  Huguenot  settle 
ment,  preparatory  to  his  return  to  England.  Scarcely  had 
the  white  sails  of  his  carrion-fleet  disappeared  from  the  offing, 
when  Ribault's  long-expected  squadron  entered  the  River 
of  May,  bringing  ample  stores  of  provisions,  besides  several 
hundred  recruits  for  the  colony.  But  Ribault,  who  was  com 
missioned  to  take  the  chief  command,  was  unaware  of  the 
black  cloud  of  ruin  that  had  gathered,  and  was  even  then 
about  to  burst  upon  the  Huguenots. 

HAWKINS  himself  relates,  of  one  of  his  slave-capturing  expedi 
tions,  that  he  set  fire  to  the  palm-thatched  huts  of  a  negro  town, 
and,  out  of  eight  thousand  inhabitants,  he  succeeded  in  securing 
but  two  hundred  and  fifty.  England's  Protestant  queen,  to  her 
great  dishonor,  protected,  as  well  as  shared  in  the  profits  of,  this 
traffic — in  the  sugar,  spices,  pearls,  etc.,  which  were  realized  in 
exchange  for  the  bodies  of  men. 


RUIN   AND    REVENGE— MENENDEZ   AND   DE  GOURGUES. 

To  MENENDEZ  DE  AVILES,  a  distinguished  officer  of  the 
Spanish  marine,  Philip  II.  had  granted  the  privilege  of  the 
conquest  and  settlement  of  Florida,  and  the  conversion  of  its 
natives.  All  of  this  Menendez  was  empowered  to  do  at  his 
own  expense,  and  he  was  also  to  take  five  hundred  men,  and 
supply  them  with  as  many  slaves,  besides  horses  and  other 
domestic  animals. 


76  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1565 

While  the  preparations  were  going  on,  news  reached  Spain 
of  the  sailing  of  the  squadron  of  Ribault,  and  so  great  a  zeal 
to  overtake  and  overwhelm  the  heretics  did  this  intelligence 
excite,  that  the  number  of  men  comprising  the  expedition  was 
shortly  increased  to  two  thousand  six  hundred,  besides  twenty 
Franciscans  and  Jesuit  priests.  Leaving  the  greater  part  of 
his  fleet  to  follow,  Menendez  sailed  for  Florida  with  eleven 
ships.  Upon  reaching  the  mouth  of  the  St.  John's,  he  at 
tacked  the  French  vessels,  but  they  escaped  to  sea.  Sailing 
down  the  cpast,  he  came  to  an  inlet,  which  he  called  ST. 
AUGUSTINE.  Here  a  landing  was  effected,  and  without  delay 
the  negroes  were  set  to  work  at  building  houses  and  intrench- 
ments.  It  was  a  memorable  event  in  our  country's  history, 
for  it  was  then,  in  the  summer  of  1565,  that  St.  Augustine, 
the  oldest  town  in  the  United  States,  was  founded,  and  it  was 
then  also  that  African  slave-labor  was  introduced  upon  our  soil. 

The  Spaniards  were  engaged  upon  this  work,  when  the 
squadron  of  Ribault  suddenly  reappeared,  coming  towards  the 
harbor.  A  storm,  however,  arose,  and  the  vessels  were  obliged 
to  leave  without  making  an  attack.  Menendez  then  proposed 
to  his  men  to  attack  the  weakened  garrison  at  Fort  Caroline, 
which  was  but  thirty  miles  distant.  All  in  the  storm,  and 
through  a  wild  country  of  swampy  forests  and  tangled  under 
brush  and  swollen  streams,  they  went  on  their  bloody  errand. 
Arriving  at  the  fort,  it  was  easily  carried  by  assault,  and  all 
of  the  garrison,  except  a  few  who  escaped  to  the  swamp,  were 
mercilessly  slain.  Even  those  who  returned  and  surrendered 
themselves,  shared  the  same  fate  as  the  rest.  Upon  a  tree, 
there  was  set  up  the  inscription,  "I  do  this  not  as  to  French 
men,  but  as  to  Lutherans."  Then  Menendez,  having  ascer 
tained  that  Ribault's  vessels,  unable  to  weather  the  storm,  had 
been  cast  ashore  below  St.  Augustine,  marched  thither  at  once. 
The  castaways,  numbering  several  hundreds,  being  persuaded 
to  put  themselves  in  his  power,  he  ordered  their  hands  tied 


1567]  DE    GOURGUES.  77 

behind  their  backs,   and  all  of   them   (who  claimed  to  be 
Huguenots)  were  shot. 

"  I  had  their  hands  tied  behind  their  backs,"  writes  the  cruel 
Menendez,  "and  themselves  put  to  the  sword.  It  appeared  to  me, 
that,  by  thus  chastising  them,  God,  our  Lord,  and  your  Majesty 
were  served  ;  whereby  in  future  this  evil  sect  will  leave  us  more 
free  to  plant  the  Gospel  in  these  parts." 

A  few  days  afterward,  he  accepted  the  surrender  of  a  remnant 
of  the  French  who  were  overtaken  down  the  coast  near  Cape  Ca 
naveral.  Philip  the  Second  graciously  writes  :  "Say  to  Menendez 
that,  as  to  those  he  has  killed,  he  has  done  well ;  and  as  to  those  he 
has  saved,  they  shall  be  sent  to  the  galleys." 

The  party  of  Catharine  de  Medicis  and  of  her  pliant  son 
Charles  IX.  was  too  much  tied  to  Romish  interests  to  complain 
of  this  wretched  massacre  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards.  But 
there  was  a  certain  Gascon,  named  DOMINIC  DE  GOURGUES, 
who  could  not  rest  easy  under  the  dishonor  which  he  believed 
his  country  had  suffered;  and  hence  formed  the  determination 
to  take  the  reprisal  into  his  own  hands.  It  does  not  appear 
certain  that  he  was  a  Huguenot,  while  it  is  sufficiently  evident 
that  motives  of  piety  did  not  at  all  regulate  his  career.  He 
hated  the  Spaniards  intensely,  and  was  probably  only  too  glad 
of  an  opportunity  to  exhibit  the  full  extent  of  his  animosity. 

With  three  small  vessels  De  Gourgues  sailed  (1567)  on  his 
evil  mission.  His  real  destination  was  not  at  first  divulged  to 
his  followers,  his  commission  simply  permitting  him  to  make 
war  on  the  negroes  of  Benin,  in  Africa,  and  to  kidnap  them 
as  slaves.  From  the  Benin  coast  he  sailed  to  Florida,  and 
landed,  unperceived  by  the  Spaniards,  above  the  mouth  of  the 
St.  John's.  The  natives,  who  had  been  treated  by  the  Span 
iards  even  more  harshly  than  before  by  the  French,  were  easily 
induced  to  unite  their  forces  with  those  of  De  Gourgues,  for 
the  attack  on  Fort  Caroline.  The  latter,  as  well  as  two  small 
forts  at  the  river's  mouth  were  all  quickly  surprised  and  cap- 


78  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1567 

tured ;  and,  with  the  same  relentless  barbarity  with  which  Me- 
nendez  had  slain  the  French,  did  they  in  turn  butcher  the 
Spaniards.  A  few  who  had  been  purposely  taken  prisoners 
were  hung  upon  a  tree,  and  over  them  was  placed  the  inscrip 
tion,  burned  with  a  hot  iron  upon  a  board  of  pine :  "  Not  as 
to  Spaniards,  but  as  to  Traitors,  Robbers  and  Murderers." 


CHAPTER  VII. 

ENGLISH   VOYAGES   AND   FIRST   SETTLEMENTS. 
1576 — 1605. 


MARTIN   FROBISHER.      SIR   HUMPHREY   GILBERT. 

IT  has  been  mentioned  in  chapter  iv.  that  Sebastian  Cabot, 
had,  subsequent  to  his  first  great  discoveries,  been  honorably 
employed  in  the  maritime  service  of  Spain.  It  is  true  that 
his  expectation  as  to  the  discovery  of  a  north-west  passage 
to  India  had  not  been  realized ;  while  in  the  meantime,  the 
south-east  route  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  that  of  the 
south-west  around  South  America,  had  been  marked  out  by  the 
expeditions  of  Vasco  de  Gama  and  of  Magellan. 

But  when,  in  1547,  the  English  council  advanced  the  sum 
of  one  hundred  pounds,  for  Cabot,  "a  pilot,  to  come  out  of 
Spain,  to  serve  and  inhabit  in  England,"  the  veteran  navigator 
accepted  the  invitation,  and  was  soon  engaged  in  the  work  of 
directing  attempts  to  reach  India  by  the  Norway  coast  and 
the  North-east.  These  efforts,  though  not  successful  as  to 
their  announced  object,  yet  were  instrumental  in  developing 
a  trade  with  Russia,  a  country  which  was  only  then  coming 
into  political  prominence.  The  harbor  of  Archangel,  on  the 
White  Sea,  was  reached  by  the  expedition  of  Sir  Hugh  Wil- 
loughby,  which  was  fitted  out  by  Cabot,  and  a  profitable 
commerce  presently  established.  The  returns  were  not  at 
once  so  great  as  were  those  of  Spain  and  Portugal  from  their 
new  possessions,  but  they  were  not  only  more  sure,  but  were 

79 


8o  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1576 

exempt  from  the  disastrous  consequences  of  a  too  rapid  in 
crease  of  wealth.  It  would  have  been  well  for  the  English 
had  they  always  followed  the  line  of  legitimate  trade,  and  not 
looked  with  envious  eyes  on  the  gold  speculations  of  their 
neighbors. 

The  passage  by  the  north  of  America,  however,  was  not  yet 
despaired  of.  To  test  its  practicability,  an  intelligent  English 
navigator,  MARTIN  FROBISHER,  not  possessing  means  of  his 
own,  persuaded  the  Earl  of  Warwick  and  other  persons  of 
wealth,  to  furnish  him  with  the  requisite  outfit.  His  three 
little  vessels — two  barks  and  a  pinnace — aggregated  a  capacity 
of  but  fifty-five  tons.  One  of  these  was  lost  in  a  storm,  a 
second  returned  to  port,  but  the  third,  in  which  was  the  com 
mander,  continued  on  its  way.  Frobisher  entered  a  strait 
between  two  large  islands — the  same  now  known  by  his  name, 
connecting  the  Greenland  Sea  with  the  channels  north  of 
Hudson's  Bay.  Taking  it  for  granted  that  it  opened  out 
into  the  great  Pacific  Ocean,  he  merely  gathered  up  some 
earth  and  stones  as  tokens  of  his  discovery,  and  returned  to 
England  to  apprise  Queen  Elizabeth  and  his  countrymen,  of 
the  acquisition  of  a  new  dominion.  This  was  in  the  year 

1576. 

A  critical  examination  of  the  rubbish  brought  back  by 
Frobisher  resulted  in  finding  a  stone  which  was  declared  to 
contain  gold.  The  cupidity  of  London  capitalists  straight 
way  became  excited,  and  a  fleet  was  sent  out  in  the  following 
year  for  the  precious  ore  of  the  northern  seas.  The  eyes  of 
the  mariners  were  wide  open  for  indications  of  treasure.  At 
a  certain  place,  spiders  abounded — an  indication,  "as  many 
affirm,"  says  the  chronicle  in  Hakluyt's  collection,  "of  signes 
of  great  store  of  gold."  The  ships  having  been  freighted 
with  the  earth,  returned  to  England  with  the  profitless  cargo. 
But  this  unsuccessful  venture  did  not  prevent  a  repetition  of  the 
same,  equally  foolish,  and  on  a  still  larger  scale.  The  fine 


1583]  SIR  HUMPHREY  GILBERT.  8 1 

fleet  of  fifteen  sail,  on  which  had  embarked  quite  a  number  of 
the  English  gentry,  entered  the  strait  afterward  known  as 
Hudson's,  but  encountering  many  icebergs  and  various  other 
perils,  and  running  into  new  and  devious  channels,  the  zeal 
of  the  gold-seekers  began  to  moderate.  Loading  their  vessels 
with  black  ore  and  other  minerals,  to  conceal  their  failure, 
they  sailed  homeward,  their  avarice  greatly  unsatisfied. 

That  worthy  chronicler,  Richard  Hakluyt,  states,  that  in 
1578 — which  was  the  year  of  Frobisher's  last  voyage — there 
were  at  Newfoundland  a  hundred  and  fifty  French  fishing- 
vessels,  besides  two  hundred  belonging  to  the  Spanish,  En 
glish,  and  Portuguese ;  also  over  twenty  Biscayan  whalers.  Il 
was  the  belief  of  HUMPHREY  GILBERT,  a  step-brother  of  Sir 
Walter  Raleigh,  that  these  fisheries,  which  realized  the  sure 
riches  of  the  sea,  were  to  be  accounted  more  valuable,  and 
more  worthy  to  be  fostered,  then  was  the  uncertain  hunt  after 
the  precious  minerals  of  the  earth.  Actuated  by  the  expecta 
tion  of  forming  a  permanent  colony  on  the  north-east  Ameri 
can  coast,  Gilbert  obtained  from  the  queen  a  very  liberal 
patent.  With  the  aid  of  Raleigh,  a  small  fleet  was  equipped 
(T579)>  but  unfortunately  a  storm  was  encountered,  one  ship 
was  lost  and  others  were  disabled,  and  as  a  consequence  the 
expedition  was  abandoned. 

As  the  patent  from  the  queen  was  to  continue  in  force  but 
six  years,  Gilbert  again,  generously  aided  by  Raleigh,  was 
provided  in  1583  (a  year  before  the  limitation  of  his  charter) 
with  a  second  fleet.  Upon  arriving  at  Newfoundland  the 
country  was  taken  possession  of  for  the  queen  of  England,  in 
the  presence  of  the  fishermen  of  various  nations,  and  lands 
were  granted  to  them  upon  condition  of  paying  a  quit-rent. 
But  disaster  attended  the  undertaking.  The  largest  ship  of 
Gilbert's  little  fleet  had  been  lost  on  the  outward  voyage. 
The  next  in  size,  which  they  now  loaded  with  what  was 
thought  to  be  silver  ore,  struck  on  a  rock  and  was  wrecked — 
D* 


82  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1533 

nearly  a  hundred  of  the  men  going  down  with  the  supposed 
treasure.  Finally,  Gilbert  with  but  two  vessels,  sailed  for 
home,  but  on  a  night  when  a  great  storm  prevailed,  the  little 
craft  (it  was  the  Squirrel,  of  ten  tons  only)  in  which  was  the- 
commander,  foundered,  and  vessel  and  crew  were  never  seen 
again. 

Shortly  before  the  time  of  Gilbert's  last  attempt  at  colonization, 
the  Spaniards  established  their  second  settlement  within  what  are 
now  the  United  States.  Augustin  Ruiz,  a  Franciscan  friar,  with 
several  companions,  had,  in  1580,  explored  the  Rio  Grande  from 
its  middle  course  to  the  upper  valley  where  Coronado  had  been, 
forty  years  before.  And  in  the  next  year,  Antonio  de  Espejio,  with 
a  body  of  soldiers  and  Indians,  continuing  the  interior  explorations 
north  of  the  Gila,  gave  to  the  country  the  name  of  NEW  MEXICO, 
and  Santa  Fe  was  built. 


SIR   FRANCIS   DRAKE. 

That  species  of  modern  land-and-water  plundering  which 
is  called  buccaneering,  was  largely  promoted  by  the  daring 
exploits  of  SIR  FRANCIS  DRAKE.  For  notoriety  as  a  piratical 
commander,  the  name  of  Drake  is,  or  ought  to  be,  connected 
with  early  English  freebooting,  as  is  that  of  Hawkins  with 
the  beginning  of  the  English  slave  trade.  Men  of  the  sea 
port  towns  who  might  have  become  peaceful  fishermen  among 
the  cod-banks  of  Newfoundland,  hearing  of  the  successful 
pillaging  by  Drake  and  Hawkins,  easily  allowed  the  desire  for- 
sudden  wealth  to  overcome  their  honest  scruples.  They  be 
held  likewise  how  titles  of  honor  were  conferred  on  names 
which  reeked  with  deeds  the  most  disgraceful.  Hence,  what 
wonder  that  weak  consciences  gave  way,  and  that  men  once 
of  good  repute,  found  themselves  embarked  upon  careers 
which  might  indeed  bring  gold  to  their  hands,  but  must  ruin 
their  souls  for  eternity. 

This  history,  however,  will  have  little  to  do  with  the  plun- 


1579]  SIR  FRANCIS  DRAKE.  83 

dering  exploits  of  the  irascible  Sir  Francis.  It  was  about  the 
time  of  Humphrey  Gilbert's  first  expedition  (1579),  that 
Drake,  having  left  England  on  a  voyage  in  pursuit  of  fortune, 
sailed  around  to  the  Spanish  possessions  on  the  Pacific,  and, 
though  Philip  the  Second  and  Elizabeth  were  not  then  at  war, 
vigorously  attacked  the  South  American  sea-ports  and  loaded 
his  ship  with  great  spoils. 

Desirous  of  discovering  a  strait  which  would  enable  him 
to  return  with  speed  to  the  Atlantic,  he  sailed  up  the  Mexican 
and  Californian  coasts  to  the  forty-third  degree  of  latitude — 
corresponding  to  the  south  part  of  Oregon — and  entered  the 
harbor  of  SAN  FRANCISCO.  It  was  so  called  by  the  English 
in  his  honor.  But  the  change  of  climate  from  that  of  the 
tropics,  was  complained  of  by  the  men,  who  also  were  prob 
ably  unwilling  to  lose  themselves  and  their  ill-gotten  gold 
among  the  remote  inlets  and  seas  which  had  proved  so  disas 
trous  to  the  fortunes  of  Frobisher.  Drake,  therefore,  after 
naming  the  country  which  he  had  discovered  for  the  English, 
New  Albion,  sailed  westward,  the  summer  of  1579,  across  the 
Pacific,  and  reaching  England  in  safety,  completed  the  second 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe. 

CALIFORNIA  was  the  name,  happily  retained,  which  had 
already  been  given  to  that  country  by  the  Spaniards.  The 
coast  had  been  explored  in  1542  by  a  Portuguese  in  the  Span 
ish  service,  named  CABRILLO,  who  had  gone  nearly  as  far 
northward  as  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  river. 

Thirteen  years  after  Drake's  appearance  on  the  Oregon 
coast  (1592),  JUAN  DE  FUCA,  a  Greek,  likewise  in  the  employ 
of  Spain,  sailed  for  twenty  days  in  the  broad  passage  between 
Vancouver's  island  and  the  mainland.  He  supposed  that  he 
had  discovered  the  western  end  of  a  great  inter-oceanic  pas 
sage  of  which  the  gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  was  the  eastern  en 
trance. 


UNIVERSITY  OF 
OA  J.ThVlDvrr  * 


84  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1584 

RALEIGH  AND  THE  ROANOKE  SETTLEMENTS. 

Notwithstanding  the  ill-success  of  the  efforts  of  Gilbert, 
and  the  sad  fate  of  that  officer,  it  was  not  long  before  his 
brother  RALEIGH  revived  the  scheme  of  American  coloniza 
tion.  The  new  patent  conferred  by  Elizabeth — with  whom 
the  learned  and  courteous  Raleigh  was  then  a  rising  favorite — 
constituted  him  lord  proprietary  over  a  large  extent  of  coun 
try,  with  the  power  to  receive  rents  and  to  make  grants  at  his 
pleasure.  PHILIP  AMIDAS  and  ARTHUR  BARLOW  were  the 
commanders  of  the  two  vessels  of  Raleigh's,  which,  in  1584, 
sailed  with  the  purpose  of  determining  the  site  for  a  colony. 
It  was  to  be  located  in  a  climate  milder  than  that  of  New 
foundland,  and  far  enough  removed  therefrom  to  avoid  inter 
ference  with  its  fisheries;  while  on  the  other  hand  it  should 
be  sufficiently  distant  from  the  Spanish  forts  of  Florida. 

Amidas  and  Barlow  followed  what  was  then  the  favorite 
route  to  America,  via  the  Canaries  and  the  West  India  islands. 
As  they  came  up  the  American  coast,  and,  when  opposite  the 
shores  of  Carolina,  drew  near  to  land,  their  pleasure  at  the 
appearance  of  the  strange  vegetation  and  the  delightful  fra 
grance  which  filled  the  air,  found  expression  in  language  like 
to  that  of  the  mariners  of  Verrazzani  many  years  before.  A 
suitable  harbor  was  not  readily  discovered ;  but  after  coasting 
the  long,  unbroken  island-beach  that  trends  north-eastwardly 
from  Cape  Lookout,  they  came  to  Ocracoke  inlet,  the  lower 
entrance  into  Pamlico  sound.  Here,  on  the  point  of  the 
island  Wokoken,  forming  the  south  shore  of  the  inlet,  the 
ceremony  of  the  queen  of  England's  sovereignty  to  the  coun 
try  was  duly  enacted. 

By  invitation  of  some  of  the  natives — all  of  whom  had 
treated  them  hospitably — they  sailed  across  Pamlico  sound  to 
Roanoke  island,  the  low,  sandy  island  which  separates  the 
former  from  Albemarle  sound.  Here  a  traffic  was  entered 


1585]  THE  ROANOKE  SETTLEMENTS.  85 

into  with  the  natives,  two  of  whom,  named  Wanchese  and 
Manteo,  were  willing  to  go  back  with  the  adventurers  to 
England.  Thither  they  sailed  as  soon  as  the  vessels  had  re 
ceived  their  cargo:  cedar-wood,  peltry  purchased  of  the 
Indians,  and  bark  of  the  sassafras — an  American  tree  which 
had  been  previously  found  in  Florida,  and  was  already  much 
esteemed  in  Europe  for  its  medicinal  and  aromatic  properties. 
The  glowing  report  of  the  voyagers,  together  with  the 
commercial  products  returned,  produced  a  favorable  influence 
on  the  public  mind  in  England.  The  name  of  VIRGINIA  was 
forthwith  conferred  upon  the  country  by  Raleigh,  in  honor 
of  the  virgin  queen ;  and  inasmuch  as  it  is  not  unusual  for  the 
recipients  of  such  compliments  to  make  some  acknowledg 
ment  of  the  fact,  so  it  happened  that  Raleigh  was  made  a 
knight  in  consideration  of  past  services,  and  was  granted  a 
monopoly  in  sweet  wines  to  aid  him  in  planting  a  colony. 

Raleigh  immediately  despatched  a  second  expedition,  of 
which  SIR  RICHARD  GRENVILLE  was  appointed  commander. 
Ralph  Lane  was  named  as  governor;  Hariot,  a  man  of  science, 
was  to  gather  the  facts  of  interest  in  his  department ;  Wythe, 
a  painter,  was  to  be  delineator  and  draughtsman.  The  expe 
dition  of  seven  ships  left  England  in  the  spring  of  1585,  and, 
L with  a  keen  lookout  for  the  possible  prize  of  a  Spanish  galleon, 
(took  the  circuitous  route  by  the  Canaries  and  West  Indies. 
;In  sailing  along  the  Carolina  coast,  the  fleet  narrowly  escaped 
shipwreck  upon  Cape  Fear;  in  commemoration  of  which  fact, 
that  prominent  headland  received  its  ominous  name.  Sailing 
into  Ocracoke  inlet,  the  fleet  made  its  way  to  the  harboring- 
station  at  Roanoke  island.  Manteo,  one  of  the  natives  who 
had  been  taken  to  England,  and  who  was  now  fitted  to  act  as 
guide  and  interpreter,  went  to  the  mainland  to  announce  their 
arrival. 

Grenville  explored  the  neighboring  shores,  and  visited  the 
Indian  villages  thereabout;  but  at  one  of  them  a  most  lament- 


86  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1586 

able  incident  occurred.  A  silver  cup  had  been  stolen,  it  was 
said,  by  the  natives ;  the  demand  for  its  restoration  was  not 
promptly  complied  with;  and  then,  with  a  brutal  retaliation 
utterly  disproportioned  to  the  offence,  Grenville  ordered  the 
village  to  be  burnt,  and  the  fields  of  standing  corn  to  be  de 
stroyed  !  By  this  cruel  act  they  forfeited,  in  one  hasty  hour, 
the  good-will  and  friendly  aid  of  the  natives.  Grenville 
landed  the  colonists,  to  the  number  of  one  hundred  and  ten 
men,  and  leaving  them  in  charge  of  Lane,  the  appointed 
governor,  sailed  back  to  England,  capturing  on  the  way  a  rich 
Spanish  prize,  with  which  to  enter  triumphantly  the  harbor 
of  Plymouth.  He  appears  to  have  coveted  piratical  booty 
much  more  than  he  did  the  prosperity  of  the  queen's  settle 
ments  in  the  New  World. 

In  the  meantime,  Lane  and  his  men  employed  themselves  in 
further  exploring  the  shores  of  the  sounds,  and  the  entrances 
of  the  rivers;  Hariot  diligently  examined  the  natural  products 
of  the  country,  not  the  least  important  of  which  he  accounted 
tobacco;  while  Wythe  made  sketches  of  the  natives.  Deluded 
by  foolish  tales  of  rich  mines  of  gold  to  be  found  far  up  the 
river  Roanoke,  Lane  attempted  to  ascend  the  rapid  current 
of  that  stream  ;  but  having  made  very  little  progress,  and  his 
provisions  being  exhausted,  he  was  compelled  to  return.  The 
Indians  were  becoming  disquieted  at  the  presence  of  the 
whites,  whose  power  for  evil  they  had  so  soon  learned  to  fear. 
In  the  spring  of  the  new  year,  the  natives,  with  the  intention 
of  causing  a  famine  which  would  have  compelled  the  de 
parture  of  their  enemies,  would  have  left  their  fields  unplanted, 
but  this  counsel  was  overruled  by  the  moderation  of  one  of 
the  chiefs. 

The  English  had  not  yet  learned  aright  the  lessons  taught  by 
the  many  failures  of  their  predecessors ;  they  were  still  un 
willing  to  till  the  soil  for  their  sustenance,  and  earn  an  honest 
livelihood  by  that  and  by  barter,  but  would  fain  grovel  in 


1586]  THE   ROAXOKE  SETTLEMENTS.  S^ 

mines  for  gold,  or,  if  need  be,  steal  it  from  its  "  savage" 
possessors.  But  Avarice  and  Suspicion  usually  go  hand-in- 
hand.  The  colonists  professed  to  believe  that  a  combination 
of  the  Indians  was  forming,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  rid  of 
them  by  a  general  massacre.  Concealing  their  suspicions, 
Lane  treacherously  requested  a  parley  with  the  most  active  one 
of  the  chiefs,  and  then,  at  a  preconcerted  signal,  this  chief 
and  his  eight  principal  followers  were  overcome  and  merci 
lessly  put  to  death. 

As  the  summer  advanced,  and  provisions  became  scarce, 
parties  of  the  colonists  were  dispersed  in  search  of  food.  One 
of  these,  on  Cape  Lookout,  descried  to  their  great  surprise, 
a  fleet  of  over  twenty  sail.  The  signals  which  they  made 
were  observed,  and  communication  opened.  It  proved  to  be 
Sir  Francis  Drake  on  his  way  home  from  an  expedition  of 
plunder  amongst  the  Spanish  West  Indian  possessions.  Rich 
in  the  booty  obtained,  he  was  generous  in  offers  of  help  to 
the  despairing  colonists — tendered  them  a  ship,  several  boats 
and  quantities  of  provisions.  But  these  were  all  destroyed  in 
a  storm  which  arose  while  Drake  yet  tarried ;  and  then,  Lane 
having  refused  to  accept  further  assistance,  returned  with  his 
men  in  the  war-fleet  to  England.  Yet  he  had  hardly  left  the 
coast,  when  a  vessel,  with  abundant  supplies  sent  over  by 
Raleigh,  arrived  at  Roanoke ;  while  a  fortnight  later  came 
Grenville  with  three  more  ships.  Having  left  fifteen  men  on 
the  island,  to  be  the  custodians  of  his  country's  rights,  Gren- 
viile  departed;  but,  feeling  reluctant  to  return  home  empty- 
handed,  he  plundered  the  Portuguese  settlements  in  the  Azore 
islands. 

Still  undismayed,  the  indefatigable  Raleigh  planned  yet 
another  expedition ;  and  with  the  hope  of  making  it  more 
certain  of  success,  he  wisely  determined  to  send  out  not  single 
men  only,  but  also  yeomen  with  their  families,  who  would  be 
apt  to  feel  a  more  settled,  personal  interest  in  the  enterprise. 


88  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1590 

A  charter  of  incorporation  was  prepared  in  advance  for  the 
"  City  of  Raleigh,"  and  JOHN  WHITE  with  eleven  others,  were 
designated  as  the  governor  and  assistant  officers.  It  had  been 
intended  by  Raleigh  that  the  colony  should  be  located  on 
Chesapeake  Bay,  but  the  officer  in  command  of  the  ships  was 
eager  to  be  off  to  the  West  Indies,  so  he  landed  the  colonists 
on  Roanoke  island  (1587).  The  houses  of  the  previous  set 
tlers  were  still  standing,  but  they  were  overgrown  with  weeds 
and  vines.  The  fifteen  men  who  had  been  left  by  Grenville, 
were  not  found — they  had  no  doubt  been  murdered  by  the 
Indians  in  revenge  for  the  death  of  their  chief. 

The  hostility  of  the  natives  was  presently  evinced  in  the 
murder  of  one  of  the  governor's  assistants,  who  had  strolled 
a  short  distance  from  the  fort.  In  haste  to  retaliate,  the  whites 
attacked  an  Indian  party  at  night,  and  had  slain  several  of 
their  number  before  it  was  discovered  that  they  were  a  friendly 
band.  Manteo,  the  interpreter,  continued  to  be  attached  to 
the  whites,  and  having  been  baptized  by  a  priest,  was  after 
wards  invested  with  the  title  of  the  "lord  of  Roanoke." 
When  the  time  came  for  the  departure  of  the  vessels,  White,  at 
the  urgent  request  of  the  settlers,  consented  to  go  back  to 
England,  to  hasten  the  promised  supplies.  He  left  on  the 
island  over  one  hundred  men  and  women,  besides  several 
children,  one  of  the  latter  being  his  grand-daughter,  VIRGINIA 
DARE,  the  first  English  child  born  in  America. 

Three  long  years  elapsed  before  the  governor  again  ap 
proached  the  sandy  beach  of  Roanoke  island.  He  had  found 
upon  his  return  to  England,  that  the  whole  country  was  in  a 
fever  of  excitement  at  the  prospect  of  a  great  invasion  by  the 
Spanish  Armada  of  Philip  II.  His  services,  as  well  as  those 
of  Raleigh,  were  called  for,  and  thus  the  colony  for  a  time 
was  reluctantly  neglected.  When  finally,  in  the  autumn  of 
1590,  White  landed  at  Roanoke,  the  prattling  lips  of  little 
Virginia  Dare  were  not  to  be  heard  in  welcoming  accents 


i6o2]  VOYAGES   OF  GOSNOLD,  PR  ING,  ETC.  89 

by  her  long-absent  grandsire.  Not  one  of  the  unfortunate 
colony  was  anywhere  to  be  found,  or  was  ever  afterward 
heard  of! 


VOYAGES   OF   GOSNOLD,   PRING,  WEYMOUTH   AND   OTHERS. 

Hitherto,  as  has  been  already  observed,  English  voyages  to 
the  temporary  American  settlements  had  usually  been  made 
by  way  of  the  Canaries  and  the  West  Indies.  A  more  expe 
ditious  route  was  chosen  by  BARTHOLOMEW  GOSNOLD,  who, 
in  1602,  with  the  concurrence  of  Raleigh,  steered  directly 
across  the  Atlantic  and  approached  the  continent  near  the 
present  harbor  of  Portland.  As  he  sailed  southward,  probably 
in  the  track  of  Thorfinn  and  the  sons  of  Eric,  Gosnold  landed 
on  a  promontory  which  he  called  Cape  Cod — the  first  land  in 
New  England,  so  far  as  he  knew,  ever  trodden  by  Englishmen. 
Farther  south  he  entered  Buzzard's  Bay,  called  by  them 
"  Gosnold's  Hope,"  and,  on  the  westernmost  of  the  Elizabeth" 
Islands  they  landed,  with  the  expectation  of  establishing  a 
settlement.  While  the  fort  was  being  built,  part  of  the  crew 
loaded  the  ship  with  sassafras  root  purchased  from  the  natives; 
but  when  the  vessel  was  ready  to  sail,  those  who  were  to  have 
remained  lost  heart,  and,  embarking  with  the  rest,  returned  to 
England. 

In  the  following  year,  certain  merchants  of  Bristol,  en 
couraged  by  Raleigh,  and  by  Hakluyt  (the  compiler  of  the 
narratives  of  these  early  voyages),  continued  the  discoveries 
of  Gosnold,  by  sending  out  two  vessels  under  the  care  of 
MICHAEL  PRING.  The  traffic  for  sassafras  root  was  also  a 
chief  incentive.  Pring  reached  the  coast  about  the  mouth  of 
the  Penobscot,  and  sailed  slowly  southward,  entering  a  number 
of  the  harbors  that  abound  in  that  locality,  until  he  came  to 
Martha's  Vineyard.  With  the  trinkets  and  articles  of  mer 
chandise  brought  out,  Pring  obtained  sufficient  sassafras,  skins 

8* 


90  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1605 

and  furs  to  load  his  vessels  with  profitable  cargoes  for  his 
employers. 

In  1605,  Cape  Cod  was  again  visited  by  the  expedition  of 
an  experienced  navigator,  GEORGE  WEYMOUTH,  who  sailed 
under  the  auspices  of  the  Earl  of  Southampton  and  others. 
He  also  entered  the  harbor  of  St.  George  at  the  mouth  of 
the  bay  of  Fundy,  and  made  accurate  observations  of  the 
natural  productions  of  the  country,  besides  trading  somewhat 
with  the  natives  for  sables  and  the  skins  of  deer,  beaver,  etc. 
Wishing  to  obtain  some  of  the  natives  to  be  instructed  as 
guides  and  interpreters  for  future  expeditions,  five  of  these 
were  decoyed  on  board,  and,  being  carried  to  England,  were 
presented  to  Chief-justice  Popham  and  Sir  Ferdinando  Gorges 
— both  actively  engaged  at  that  time  in  soliciting  from  the  king 
a  patent  for  the  North  Virginia  Company.  To  the  wondering 
populace  of  London,  Popham' s  kidnapped  savages  became  ob 
jects  of  very  great  interest. 

Two  years  subsequent  to  Weymouth's  voyage,  Sir  GEORGE 
POPHAM,  brother  of  the  chief-justice,  and  RALEIGH  GILBERT, 
a  son  of  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  were  placed  in  charge  of  an 
expedition,  which  proceeded  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec 
with  the  expectation  of  effecting  a  permanent  settlement. 
Here  was  launched  the  Virginia,  of  thirty  tons,  the  first  ves 
sel  built  by  Englishmen  on  the  shores  of  America.  Aboard 
this  little  craft  many  of  the  colonists,  yielding  to  discourage 
ments,  went  back  to  England.  Shortly  after,  Popham  died, 
and,  Gilbert  returning  home,  the  remaining  settlers — who  did 
not  seek  to  conciliate  the  natives — quickly  followed.  Thus, 
after  a  century  of  exploration  and  attempted  colonization,  a 
few  Frenchmen  in  Acadie  and  some  Spaniards  at  St.  Augus 
tine  were  the  only  Europeans  upon  that  long  Atlantic  coast. 


CHAPTER    VIII. 

COLONIZATION   OF  VIRGINIA. 

1607 — 1624. 


JAMESTOWN— THE  FIRST  PERMANENT  ENGLISH  SETTLEMENT. 

IT  having  been  clearly  proved  that  the  great  territory  which 
had  been  discovered  beyond  the  Atlantic  was  a  continent  un 
connected  with,  and  indeed  separated  by  a  vast  ocean  from 
that  of  Asia,  the  desire  amongst  maritime  nations  to  establish 
permanent  settlements  upon  the  shores  of  the  New  World  be 
came  stronger  with  each  succeeding  year.  With  the  English, 
the  discouraging  results  attending  the  Raleigh  settlements  in 
Carolina,  soon  gave  place  to  the  hope  of  a  profitable  traffic, 
as  developed  by  the  expeditions  of  Gosnold,  Pring,  and  Wey- 
mouth. 

In  the  year  succeeding  Weymouth's  return  (1606),  there 
was  organized  the  LONDON  COMPANY,  of  which  the  treasurer 
was  Sir  Thomas  Smith,  who  was  also  one  of  the  possessors  of 
the  patent  which  had  been  issued  by  King  James  the  First  to 
Raleigh.  The  code  of  laws  was  framed  according  to  the 
royal  ideas,  though  not  strictly  in  accordance  with  the  wishes 
of  those  whom  they  were  intended  to  govern.  The  king  was 
to  appoint  a  superior  council,  resident  in  England,  whose 
members  could  be  removed  at  his  pleasure  ;  but  the  colony 
was  also  permitted  a  domestic  council  of  its  own,  though  its 
members  and  its  decrees  were  likewise  subject  to  the  king's 
approval.  For  the  first  twenty-one  years,  the  Virginia  planta 
tion  was  to  receive  all  duties  levied  on  vessels  trading  to  its 

91 


92  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1606 

harbors ;  after  that  time,  the  right  was  to  be  surrendered  to 
the  crown.  The  charter  was  good  in  so  far  as  the  king  acted 
as  a  check  upon  possible  oppression  by  the  London  Company 
which  established  the  plantation  ;  but  it  was  objectionable,  in 
that  the  people  of  the  plantation  could  not  choose  the  members 
of  their  domestic  council,  who  were  obviously  the  ones  best 
situated  to  judge  of  their  wants. 

The  code  of  laws  provided  that  the  doctrines  and  rites  of 
the  Church  of  England  were  to  be  the  established  religion. 
It  decreed  the  punishment  of  death  not  only  in  cases  of 
murder,  but  also  of  dangerous  tumults  and  seditions.  All  the 
produce  resulting  from  the  labor  of  the  settlers  for  five  years 
succeeding  their  landing,  was  to  be  held  in  common.  It  was 
to  be  stored  in  suitable  magazines,  superintended  by  a  "  cape 
merchant,"  and  two  clerks  were  to  take  note  of  all  that  went 
in  and  came  out  from  the  same. 

The  preliminaries  of  government  being  thus  arranged  in 
advance,  the  little  squadron  of  three  vessels,  commanded  by 
CHRISTOPHER  NEWPORT,  sailed  in  the  latter  part  of  the  year 
1606,  for  the  American  shores.  Of  the  one  hundred  and  five 
men  on  board  the  vessels,  who  were  intended  as  colonists, 
forty-eight  were  styled  "gentlemen."  Dissensions  sprang  up 
amongst  them  on  the  voyage,  growing  out  of  the  uncertainty 
as  to  who  were  to  be  the  colonial  councillors,  the  names  of 
these  having  been  carefully  sealed  up  in  a  tin  box  along  with 
the  instructions  of  King  James.  In  addition  to  the  so-called 
gentlemen,  there  were  a  few  laborers  and  artisans,  besides 
soldiers  and  servants.  Prominent  among  the  company,  were 
Wingfield,  a  rich  merchant  and  a  projector  of  the  colony ; 
John  Smith,  an  energetic  adventurer ;  Robert  Hunt,  an 
amiable  and  worthy  clergyman  ;  and  the  voyager  Gosnold. 

Newport,  instead  of  following  Gosnold's  former  track 
directly  across  the  Atlantic,  took  the  much  longer  route  by 
way  of  the  West  Indies.  A  severe  storm  drove  the  vessels 


1607]  CAPTAIN  JOHN  SMITH.  93 

beyond  the  Pamlico  inlets,  to  the  great  bay  of  the  Chesapeake 
— ' '  the  mother  of  the  waters. ' '  The  head-lands  at  its  entrance 
they  named  after  the  sons  of  King  James — the  lower  one  Cape 
Henry,  after  the  Prince  of  Wales,  a  youth  of  good  promise, 
and  the  upper  one  Cape  Charles,  from  the  king's  second  son 
who  afterwards  ascended  the  throne.  Upon  the  noble  stream, 
the  Powhatan,  which  they  ascended,  they  conferred  the  name 
of  King  James.  About  fifty  miles  above  the  river's  mouth, 
where  they  arrived  the  i3th  of  the  5th  month  (May),  1607, 
they  selected  a  site  for  their  settlement,  which  was  called 
JAMES'  TOWN.  The  sealed  box  having  been  opened,  the 
names  of  Wingfield,  Gosnold,  Smith,  Newport  and  three 
others  were  found  in  it,  as  those  who  were  to  compose  the 
council ;  and  of  these  seven,  Wingfield  was  elected  president. 
Smith  was  at  first  excluded  upon  a  false  charge  of  sedition, 
but  by  the  mediation  of  Hunt,  was  soon  honorably  restored. 

CAPTAIN  JOHN   SMITH. 

This  Captain  John  Smith,  who  is  the  central  figure  in  the 
first  two  years  of  Virginia's  history,  was  a  man  whose  promi 
nent  traits  of  character  were  a  great  readiness  of  invention 
and  promptitude  in  time  of  danger — habits  of  self-reliance 
which  invested  him  with  a  talent  for  command.  Although 
but  thirty  years  of  age  at  this  time,  his  life  had  been  one  of 
many  adventures :  fighting  in  the  Netherlands  against  the 
Spanish  rulers,  and  in  Hungary  against  the  invading  Moham 
medans — carried  a  captive  to  Constantinople  and  sold  as  a 
slave — a  prisoner  in  a  Russian  fortress  and  then  the  slayer  of 
his  task-master — next,  a  fugitive  across  the  Mediterranean  to 
the  kingdom  of  Morocco.  Finally,  having  returned  to  Eng 
land,  he  made  the  acquaintance  of  Gosnold,  with  whom  he 
ardently  entered  into  the  scheme  of  American  colonization. 

His  first  service  in  the  new  colony  was  to  accompany  New- 


94  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1607 

port  and  twenty  others  up  the  river  to  the  Falls  of  the  James, 
which  are  opposite  the  present  city  of  Richmond.  A  mile 
below  the  falls,  on  a  rising-ground  is  the  plantation  yet  known 
as  "  Powhatan,"  and  it  was  here  that  the  great  chief  of  that 
name  had  his  wigwam.  He  was  a  tall,  athletic  man,  about 
sixty  years  of  age,  and  was  the  ruler  of  more  than  forty  clans 
or  small  tribes,  which  were  thinly  scattered  over  the  territory 
of  the  lower  Potomac  and  the  James.  The  settlers  called 
them  all  by  the  general  name  of  their  chief — the  Powhatans. 
The  Monicans  dwelt  on  the  upper  James,  and  the  Mannahoacs 
upon  the  upper  courses  of  the  Potomac  and  the  Rappahannoc ; 
while  at  the  head  of  Chesapeake  bay  were  the  Susquehannocs. 
All  of  these  tribes  belonged  to  the  Algonquin  race. 

Early  in  the  summer,  Newport  returned  to  England,  leaving 
the  chief  management  of  affairs  in  the  hands  of  Smith,  al 
though  Ratcliffe  was  then  the  inefficient  president  of  the 
council.  The  spirits  and  health  of  the  company  were  at  a 
low  ebb.  The  small  allowance  of  provisions  which  was  doled 
out  from  the  common  store,  consisted  principally  of  wheat 
and  barley  which  had  been  damaged  on  ship-board.  Crabs 
and  sturgeon,  however,  were  obtained  from  the  river.  But 
disappointment  and  melancholy,  together  with  lack  of  nour 
ishing  food,  soon  resulted  in  an  outbreak  of  disease,  and, 
before  autumn,  fifty  men  (one  of  whom  was  Gosnold)  had 
died.  Had  the  Indians  now  deserted  them,  the  colonists 
would  have  been  in  a  fair  way  to  perish  entirely,  but  the 
"  savages,"  when  the  autumn  came,  and  their  harvests  were 
gathered,  brought  voluntary  offerings  of  corn  and  fruits  and 
venison.  The  health  of  the  colonists  soon  improved,  and, 
directed  by  their  energetic  leader,  they  erected  a  palisadoed 
fort,  as  well  as  huts  to  protect  themselves  from  the  rigor  of 
winter. 

As  the  men  became  better  reconciled  to  their  situation, 
Smith  determined  to  leave  them  for  awhile,  for  the  purpose 


i6o8]  CAPTAIN  JOHN  SMITH.  95 

of  exploring  the  country.  Accompanied  only  by  two  of  his 
men  and  two  Indian  guides,  he  ascended  the  Chickahominy, 
until  the  canoe  would  float  no  longer.  Then  with  a  single 
Indian  he  struck  inland,  but,  being  attacked  by  a  party  of 
natives,  was  made  prisoner,  after  a  vigorous  defence  in  which 
three  of  his  assailants  were  killed.  His  captors  would  probably 
have  taken  his  life  at  once,  but  he  exhibited  to  them  a  pocket 
compass,  and  otherwise  amused  them,  so  that,  becoming  elated 
at  their  triumph  in  securing  such  a  mortal,  they  carried  him 
through  their  villages  until  they  had  reached  the  residence  of 
Powhatan,  who  at  that  time  was  on  the  York  river,  not  far 
north  of  Jamestown. 

The  chief  and  his  councillors  doomed  their  prisoner  to 
death,  but  just  as  the  sentence  was  about  to  be  executed,  and 
the  tomahawk  was  uplifted,  POCAHONTAS,  the  daughter  of  the 
chief — a  gentle  maiden  scarcely  twelve  years  of  age — sprang 
forward,  and  clinging  to  the  neck  of  the  captain,  interceded 
with  her  father  for  his  life.  Her  request  was  granted,  and, 
after  seven  weeks'  captivity,  Smith  was  sent  back  to  James 
town,  accompanied  by  several  Indian  guides.  This  story  of 
the  rescue,  which  rests  entirely  upon  the  authority  of  Smith, 
is  now  by  many  discredited. 

Shortly  after  Smith's  return,  Newport  arrived  from  Eng 
land  with  120  emigrants,  though  not  of  the  sort  who  were 
calculated  to  add  to  the  well-being  of  the  colony,  being 
mostly  gentlemen  and  goldsmiths.  Like  the  adventurers  who 
went  with  Frobisher,  these  treasure-hunters  soon  discovered 
what  they  believed  to  be  gold,  and  loaded  one  of  the  vessels 
with  the  worthless  earth  and  stones.  The  other  vessel  Smith 
prevailed  on  the  men  to  load  with  skins,  furs,  and  cedar-wood 
— the  first  exportation  of  value  from  Virginia. 

In  the  summer  of  1608,  while  the  settlers  were  rebuilding 
their  huts,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  a  fire,  Smith,  with 
eleven  companions,  undertook  the  exploration  of  Chesar^ike 


96  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1609 

bay,  which  he  surveyed  to  the  mouth  of  the  Susquehanna. 
So  many  and  so  devious  are  the  coast-lines  of  this  great  bay, 
that  Smith's  investigations  embraced  nearly  3000  miles  of 
navigation  ;  the  Potomac  was  also  ascended  as  far  as  the  lo 
cality  of  Washington.  Upon  Smith's  return  he  was  elected 
president  of  the  council.  Newport  now  again  appeared, 
with  yet  more  undesirable  and  unwelcome  recruits,  which 
obliged  Smith  to  write  to  the  London  Company,  "When 
you  send  again,  I  entreat  you,  rather  send  but  thirty  carpen 
ters,  husbandmen,  gardeners,  fishermen,  blacksmiths,  masons, 
and  diggers-up-of-trees-roots,  well-provided,  than  a  thousand 
of  such  as  we  have."  Nevertheless,  Smith  was  strenuous  in 
obliging  every  one  to  work — six  hours  a  day  being  the  time 
allotted — and  so  the  settlers  passed  the  summer  in  a  far  better 
state  of  health  than  they  did  the  year  preceding.  When 
Newport's  vessel  sailed,  it  carried  back  a  cargo  of  wainscot 
and  clapboards,  and  also  some  tar,  pitch  and  potash,  pre 
pared  by  several  Germans  who  were  among  the  last  who  came. 

Although  the  Virginia  colony  could  not  be  said  to  be  in 
a  flourishing  condition,  the  London  Corporation,  having 
changed  its  title,  put  forth  great  efforts  to  make  the  under 
taking  popular.  They  obtained  a  new  charter,  in  which  it 
was  provided  that  the  affairs  and  laws  of  the  colony  should  be 
regulated  by  the  superior  council  in  England,  who  should 
choose  a  governor;  that  the  colonial  council  at  Jamestown 
should  be  abolished,  and  that  the  governor  should  exercise  its 
former  powers.  They  were  given  all  the  territory  north  and 
south  of  the  James,  200  miles  each  way,  and  extending  west 
ward  to  the  Pacific. 

The  governor  first  appointed  was  LORD  DELAWARE.  Not 
being  ready  to  leave  England  at  once,  the  fleet  of  nine  vessels 
and  500  colonists  set  sail  (1609)  without  him,  Newport  and 
two  others  being  designated  to  act  as  commissioners  until  he 
should  arrive.  But  it  happened  that  the  vessel  in  which  were 


i6io]       COLONY  UNDER   THE    VIRGINIA   COMPANY.       97 

the  commissioners,  having  been  stranded  in  a  storm  upon  the 
Bermudas,  did  not  appear  until  several  months  after  the  others. 
The  new  colonists  being  inclined  to  dispute  the  authority  of 
Smith,  he  partly  got  rid  of  them  by  establishing  two  new  set 
tlements,  one  at  the  Falls  of  the  James,  and  the  other  at 
Nansemond — near  where  Richmond  and  Norfolk  now  stand. 
The  unruly  behavior  of  these  new-comers  soon  involved 
them  in  disputes  with  the  Indians,  while  Smith  himself,  being 
severely  wounded  by  an  accidental  discharge  of  powder,  was 
obliged  to  return  to  England  for  surgical  aid.  At  his  depart 
ure,  the  colony  numbered  about  500  persons.  At  Jamestown, 
there  was  a  fort,  a  chapel  and  a  storehouse,  besides  a.bout  60 
dwellings ;  also  a  few  horses,  swine  and  other  domestic  ani 
mals.  Only  about  forty  acres  of  land  were  in  cultivation,  so 
that  the  colonists  were  obliged  to  depend  for  food  mainly  on 
the  corn,  purchased  or  extorted  from  the  Indians. 


THE  COLONY   UNDER   THE   GOVERNMENT   OF  THE  VIRGINIA 
COMPANY. 

\ 

The  six  months  following  the  departure  of  Smith,  were 
long  remembered  in  the  colony  as  the  Starving  Time.  All 
discipline  was  given  up  by  the  settlers,  who  forsook  the  reg 
ular  system  of  labor  which  Smith  had  established*  and,  while 
consuming  the  general  stock  of  provisions,  became  idle  and 
riotous.  A  famine  was  the  consequence.  They  also  lost  the 
good-will  of  the  Indians,  who  waylaid  and  killed  many  of 
those  who  wandered  off  in  search  of  food.  Thirty  of  the 
colonists,  under  plea  of  their  necessities,  seized  a  vessel  and 
sailed  away,  purposing  to  become  pirates.  Only  sixty  persons 
out  of  nearly  500  remained,  when,  in  the  spring  of  1610, 
Newport,  Gates  and  Somers,  the  three  commissioners  of  the 
London  Virginia  Company,  arrived  from  the  scene  of  their 
wreck  on  the  Bermudas. 

E  9 


9 8  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1611 

The  settlers  could  probably  have  survived  but  ten  days  longer 
had  not  the  commissioners  come  thus  timely  to  their  relief; 
but  as  their  own  company,  comprising  150  men,  had  but  a  few 
days'  provisions  for  themselves,  it  was  resolved  to  abandon 
Virginia  and  to  sail  for  Newfoundland,  where  succor  could 
be  obtained  from  the  fishermen.  The  settlers  had  actually 
embarked,  and  were  sailing  down  the  river,  when  the  three 
ships  of  Lord  Delaware,  with  provisions  and  colonists,  met 
them.  Thankful  for  this  second  relief,  they  landed  once 
more,  and  the  habitations  of  Jamestown  were  again  peopled. 
But  the  health  of  the  governor  very  soon  declining,  he  was 
forced  to  return  to  England,  leaving  the  colony  in  charge  of 
LORD  PERCY. 

Percy  was  not  long  in  office,  when  he  was  succeeded  (1611) 
as  deputy  by  Sir  Thomas  Dale,  who  came  over  with  more 
men  and  supplies.  He  was  furnished  with  a  printed  code  of 
laws,  harsh  in  their  nature,  and  which  remained  for  eight 
years  the  martial  law  of  the  colony.  SIR  THOMAS  GATES,  one 
of  the  late  commissioners,  but  now  the  appointed  governor, 
also  brought  over  300  men,  as  well  as  a  hundred  cattle.  The 
animals,  indeed,  were  better  assurances  of  permanency  than 
many  men  would  have  been,  and  their  importation  was  a  step 
which  proved  the  wisdom  of  Lord  Cecil,  who  had  a  control 
ling  voice  in  the  affairs  of  the  company.  The  plantation  of 
Henrico — so  named  from  Prince  Henry,  the  eldest  son  of  the 
king — was  founded  by  Dale  upon  the  river,  in  the  neighbor 
hood  of  the  wigwams  of  Powhatan  :  and  where  the  Appo- 
mattox  enters  the  James,  was  established  another  settlement, 
called  New  Bermuda.  The  Indians  were  driven  away  from 
their  cabins  and  fields,  and  stockades  were  erected  that  the 
English  might  not  in  their  turn  be  thus  unjustly  treated. 

There  now  happened  an  event  in  the  colony  which  proved 
instrumental  in  bringing  about  more  friendly  relations  with 
the  Indians  than  had  recently  existed.  Captain  SAMUEL 


1616]       COLONY  UNDER   THE    VIRGINIA   COMPANY.      gg 

ARGALL,  having  gone  up  the  Potomac  on  a  trading  expedition, 
found  the  princess  Pocahontas  there,  and  having  enticed  her 
on  board  his  ship,  carried  her  back  with  him  to  Jamestown. 
Powhatan  demanded  the  release  of  his  daughter,  which  being 
refused  unless  a  ransom  was  given,  the  chief  prepared  to  make 
war.  But  a  settler  named  John  Rolfe,  an  honest  and  pious 
young  Englishman,  feeling  a  strong  sympathy  for  the  Indian 
maiden,  labored  for  her  conversion.  Being  of  a  docile  spirit 
and  quick  of  apprehension,  she  made  satisfactory  progress, 
and  their  friendship  having  ripened  into  attachment,  Rolfe 
desired  her  in  marriage.  Powhatan  assented,  and  Pocahontas 
having  received  the  rite  of  water  "baptism,  the  couple  were 
united  in  the  chapel  at  Jamestown. 

Argall,  the  captor  of  Pocahontas,  a  coarse  and  passionate 
man,  hearing  that  the  French  were  establishing  themselves 
on  the  coasts  of  Maine  and  Acadie  (which  were  claimed  as 
being  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  English),  hastened  to 
dislodge  them.  He  cannonaded  their  settlements  on  Mont 
Desert  island,  at  St.  Croix  and  Port  Royal — the  deserted 
houses  of  the  latter  being  set  on  fire,  and  those  on  Mont 
Desert  given  over  to  pillage.  He  also  entered  the  mouth 
of  the  Hudson,  where,  on  Manhattan  island,  Dutch  traders 
had  settled.  These  acknowledged  the  authority  of  England 
while  Argall  was  there,  but  hoisted  the  Dutch  flag  as  soon  as 
their  troublesome  visitor  had  departed. 

In  1616,  DALE,  who  had  served  with  firmness  and  efficiency 
after  Gates'  return  home,  himself  went  back  to  England, 
having  appointed  George  Yeardley  to  be  deputy.  At  this  time 
tobacco  had  become  the  favorite  production  of  the  colonists, 
so  that  not  only  the  gardens  and  fields,  but  even  the  streets 
of  Jamestown,  were  allowed  for  the  culture  of  the  weed  which 
was  destined  to  become  Virginia's  chief  staple.  Anxious  to 
realize  the  high  price  which  the  article  commanded,  the 
settlers  devoted  so  exclusive  an  attention  to  its  production 


ioo  HISTORY  OF    THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1619 

that  they  were  in  danger  of  suffering  from  insufficiency  of 
food. 

Each  settler  had  at  first  been  allowed  ioo  acres  of  land, 
for  which  an  annual  quit-rent  of  two  shillings  was  to  be  paid  to 
the  company,  but  this  allowance  of  land  was  now  reduced 
one-half.  Many  who  received  grants  paid  a  corn  rent,  and 
in  this  manner  the  colonial  officials  at  first  received  their 
salaries.  The  governor  had  a  plantation  cultivated  by  a  hun 
dred  indentured  servants  of  the  company.  Grants  of  land 
were  likewise  made  for  meritorious  services,  but  not  to  a 
greater  extent  than  2000  acres ;  yet  these  favors  were  not 
always  well-bestowed,  while  the  consequent  engrossment  of 
lands  for  such  purposes  gave  rite  to  much  complaint. 

Upon  Dale's  return  to  England,  there  was  considerable  con 
tention  between  GEORGE  YEARDLEY,  whom  Dale  had  nomi 
nated  as  his  successor,  and  the  friends  of  Argall.  The  latter 
individual  obtained  the  office  for  awhile,  but  complaints  of  his 
misbehavior  having  been  made  to  the  Virginia  Company,  Lord 
Delaware  was  empowered  to  restore  tranquillity.  He  started 
with  that  intent,  but  died  on  the  voyage  across  the  ocean : 
it  is  said,  at  the  entrance  of  that  bay  to  which  his  name 
has  been  given.  Yeardley  having  been  appointed  governor, 
with  the  title  of  baronet,  then  came  over  to  Virginia ;  while 
Argall,  fearing  lest  his  ill-gotten  property  would  be  confis 
cated,  escaped  with  it  to  the  West  Indies. 

When  Yeardley  arrived  in  Virginia  (1619),  twelve  years 
after  its  first  settlement,  there  Were  but  600  colonists  and  7 
distinct  plantations.  Having  added  four  others,  he  called  a 
meeting  of  the  first  colonial  assembly.  It  was  composed  of 
the  governor,  a  council,  and  of  deputies  or  burgesses  from  the 
ii  plantations.  John  Pory  was  elected  speaker,  and  acts  were 
passed  which  gave  general  satisfaction. 

The  colonists,  feeling  now  that  their  rights  were  regarded, 
and  that  Virginia  was  indeed  their  country,  applied  themselves 


1621]      COLONY  UNDER   THE   VIRGINIA   COMPANY.      IQI 

industriously  to  the  work  of  building  houses  and  cultivating 
their  fields.  And  in  order  that  they  might  become  still  more 
attached  to  the  soil,  by  adopting  domestic  and  virtuous  habits, 
the  company  sent  over  to  Jamestown  ninety  young  women, 
"  agreeable,  persons,  young  and  incorrupt,"  who  were  taken 
as  wives  by  the  planters.  Sixty  more  were  despatched  the 
next  year,  and  realized  a  still  better  price  than  the  first.  One 
hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  tobacco  was  the  average  price 
paid  by  a  planter  to  the  company,  for  its  trouble  and  expense 
in  furnishing  him  with  an  amiable  partner.  This  expedient 
stimulated  emigration  to  such  an  extent,  that  in  three  years 
the  colony  had  increased  in  numbers  to  about  4000  persons. 

Upon  the  promulgation  by  the  company  of  the  written 
constitution  of  the  colony,  which  was  sent  thither  in  1621, 
SIR  FRANCIS  WYATT  was  appointed  governor.  He  was  in 
structed  to  restrict  the  cultivation  of  tobacco,  for  its  use  was 
as  yet  limited,  and  the  market  soon  became  overstocked.  It 
was  therefore  recommended  that  more  attention  should  be 
given  to  corn,  cattle,  and  grape  growing,  as  well  as  to  the 
culture  of  silk  by  planting  mulberry-trees.  The  latter  indus 
try,  however,  was  not  destined  to  succeed,  the  population 
being  too  sparse  for  its  profitable  cultivation  ;  but  it  is  inter 
esting  to  note  that  at  that  time  (1621)  the  first  cotton  seeds 
in  the  United  States  were  here  planted,  and  their  favorable 
growth  soon  attracted  especial  attention.  Wyatt  was  also 
enjoined  to  preserve  peaceable  relations  with  the  Indians,  but 
those  injunctions  came  too  late  to  avert  the  calamity  which 
presently  followed. 

Powhatan  was  dead,  and  in  his  place  ruled  Opechancanough, 
a  bold  and  cunning  chief,  who  showed  little  of  that  regard  for 
the  English  which  had  been  latterly  manifested  by  his  elder 
brother.  But  it  is  clear  that  the  English  had  not  exhibited, 
in  their  conduct  toward  the  natives,  those  Christian  traits  the 
exercise  of  which  would  not  have  failed  to  ripen  into  true 


102  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1622 

attachment.  More  than  that,  they  had  not  regarded  the 
simplest  principles  of  justice.  The  intruders  had  continued 
laying  out  plantations,  erecting  their  dwellings  where  once 
the  wigwams  of  the  Indians  stood  upon  the  banks  of  their 
beautiful  Powhatan ;  and  now,  in  the  eagerness  of  the  settlers 
to  secure  the  best  lands  for  tobacco  culture,  they  bad  pene 
trated  northward,  nearly  or  quite  to  the  Potomac.  What 
compensation  had  the  natives  received  for  all  this  broad 
domain?  Where  indeed  would  they  be  in  a  few  years,  if 
strangers  continued  to  steal  their  lands  at  the  rate  they  were 
now  doing  ?  The  Indians  believed  that  their  only  safety  was 
in  the  extermination  of  the  whites,  and,  incensed  at  the  mur 
der  of  one  of  their  principal  warriors,  they  delayed  no  longer 
to  raise  the  tomahawk. 

The  various  tribes  which  comprised  the  Powhatans,  did  not 
number,  however,  over  2500  warriors,  and  being  scattered 
over  a  large  extent  of  territory,  and  located  a  few  together  in 
little  villages,  their  murderous  design  was  not  suspected  by  the 
whites.  But  at  mid-day  of  the  22d  of  the  3d  month  (March), 
1622,  the  Indians  fell  upon  the  settlers  "  like  a  thunderbolt 
from  a  clear  sky,"  and  in  one  hour  350  of  the  inhabitants  had 
been  massacred.  Jamestown  itself  and  several  of  the  adjacent 
settlements,  were  apprised  by  a  friendly  Indian  of  the  intended 
attack,  and  escaped  the  carnaga  which  prevailed  in  the  other 
districts.  The  Indians,  finding  themselves  unable  to  do  fur 
ther  mischief,  quickly  retreated,  while  the  colonists,  for  con 
venience  of  defence,  having  been  all  collected  on  six  of  the 
80  plantations,  entered  upon  a  bloody  war  of  extermination, 
in  which  the  natives  were  slain  without  mercy.  The  imme 
diate  results  of  this  retaliatory  policy  were  disastrous  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  colony ;  sickness  and  scarcity  of  food 
prevailed;  the  college  estate,  a  tract  of  10,000  acres,  was 
abandoned ;  and  the  small  glass  and  iron  works,  which  had 
been  operated  by  some  Italians  and  Dutch,  were  destroyed. 


1624]  SLAVERY  IN   VIRGINIA.  ^3 

Fourteen  years  elapsed  before  a  peace  was  made  with  the 
natives. 

In  London,  there  were  now  great  dissensions  among  the 
1000  stockholders  of  the  Virginia  Company,  a  portion  of 
whom,  seeing  only  ruin  before  them,  appealed  to  King  James 
for  an  investigation  into  the  company's  affairs.  The  king, 
for  several  years,  had  desired  to  exercise  a  more  personal 
control  in  colonial  matters,  and  hence  readily  replied  to  the 
application  by  the  appointment  of  commissioners,  who  at 
once  proceeded  to  the  colony. 

The  report  of  the  commissioners  upon  the  state  of  the 
colony  was  unfavorable;  yet  they  esteemed  the  plantation  to 
be  an  important  acquisition  to  the  dominion  of  the  king,  and 
made  such  recommendations  as  the  latter  had  desired.  The 
matter  being  heard  in  court,  the  judges,  whose  positions  were 
at  the  mercy  of  the  king,  entered  a  decree  against  the  cor 
poration,  whereby  its  patents  became  forfeited.  Thus  the 
London  Virginia  Company,  in  1624,  ceased  to  exist,  after 
spending  ^150,000  in  establishing  a  colony,  the  returns  from 
which  had  as  yet  been  meagre  indeed. 


SLAVERY   IN  VIRGINIA. 

Somewhat  has  been  said,  in  the  preceding  chapters,  of  the 
traffic  in  negro  slaves,  as  carried  on  by  the  Spanish  and  Por 
tuguese.  It  was  in  the  summer  of  1619,  while  Yeardley  was 
governor,  that  the  curse  of  slavery  was  fastened  upon  the 
"  Old  Dominion,"  and  it  was  in  a  Dutch  man-of-war  that  the 
first  instalment  of  twenty  negroes  was  brought,  and  landed  at 
Jamestown,  to  be  sold  to  the  planters.  For  many  years  it 
was  almost  entirely  the  Dutch,  who  were  concerned  in  bring 
ing  them  to  the  Virginia  market.  Nevertheless,  their  intro 
duction  was  not  by  any  means  rapid,  for  at  the  end  of  thirty 


104  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1624 

years  after  the  first  importation,  the  proportion  of  negroes  to 
whites  in  the  colony,  was  but  one  in  fifty. 

Although  the  Dutch,  who  drove  out  the  Portuguese  in  the  East 
Indies,  claimed  to  be  a  reformed  people,  they  exhibited  toward  the 
natives  of  those  lands  a  measure  of  savage  cruelty  but  little  infe 
rior  to  that  which  had  characterized  their  Papist  predecessors.  In 
the  islands  of  the  Java  seas  there  were  secret  prisons,  known  to, 
and  upheld  by,  the  chief  men  and  magistrates,  in  which  kidnapped 
natives  were  confined,  to  be  sold  abroad  as  slaves.  Any  man, 
woman,  or  child,  might  be  suddenly  carried  off  to  these  secret 
prisons,  where  they  were  kept  until  a  ship's  cargo  of  victims  was 
secured — then  marched  out  in  chains  at  night  and  put  aboard  the 
vessel,  with  no  hope  of  relief  or  rescue. 

Amongst  the  nations  called  Christian,  of  a  few  centuries 
ago,  there  was  a  strange  discrimination  entertained  as  to  what 
was  fair  and  what  was  really  wrong  in  the  infliction  of  a  state 
of  servitude.  For  instance,  the  strangers  and  the  heathen 
of  old  time  were  mentioned  as  having  been  held  in  bondage 
by  the  Israelites,  a  course  sanctioned  by  the  law  of  Moses ; 
and  thus  it  was  agreed  that  when  Christians  came  in  contact 
with  such  "heathen  and  strangers"  as  the  negroes,  the  Moors 
and  the  Indians,  the  proper  course  to  take  with  them  was  to 
place  them  in  a  condition  of  slavery. 

But  there  was  another  form  of  servitude — the  system  of 
indenturing,  or  apprenticeship  of  white  persons — which  dif 
fered  from  the  first  only  in  the  duration  of  bondage.  This 
prevailed  largely  in  Virginia  prior  to  the  introduction  of 
negroes.  These  white  servants  were  first  sold  in  England,  to 
be  transported ;  were  sold  again  upon  their  arrival  in  Virginia, 
to  the  highest  bidder ;  and  had  then  to  give  their  exclusive 
labor  for  a  term  of  years  to  clear  themselves  of  the  cost  of 
their  transportation.  The  planters  would  go  aboard  the  ships 
upon  their  arrival  in  port,  and  would  often  pay  for  the  servants 
four  or  five  times  what  they  had  cost  in  England.  Some  of 


1624]  SLA  VER  Y  IN  VIRGINIA.  ! O5 

these  servants  were  prisoners  of  war;    others,  again,  were 
known  to  the  colonists  as  "jail-birds/'  being  convicts  who 
had  been  taken  from  British  prisons  by  the  king's  orders,  and 
shipped  to  the  colony  for  sale  as  servants.     It  has  been  already 
stated  that  the  salaries  of  a  number  of  the  colonial  officers 
were  paid  in  the  labor  of  these  indentured  servants,  and  that 
the  governor  had  as  many  as  100  assigned  to  his  use.     The 
colonial  treasurer  and  the  marshal,  had  each  1500  acres,  cul 
tivated  by  50  indentured  tenants;  the  colonial  physician  re 
ceived  500  acres  and  20  tenants;  while  to  each  clergyman, 
there  appertained,  besides  the  regular  tax  of  tobacco,   100 
acres,  cultivated  by  6  tenants.     This  system  of  limited  slavery, 
or  feonage,  made  the  way  easy  for  the  introduction  of  the 
practice  of  life-long  bondage. 


CHAPTER    IX. 

THE  FRENCH   OCCUPATION   OF  CANADA. 
1598 — 1662. 


DE    MONTS:    THE    SETTLEMENT    OF    PORT    ROYAL. 


all  the  century  preceding  the  English  occupation 
of  Virginia,  the  fishermen  of  Newfoundland  and  the  neigh 
boring  shores,  found  profitable  occupation  in  cod-fishing,  and 
also  in  capturing  the  walrus,  whose  tusks  of  ivory  were  a  valu 
able  article  of  commerce.  The  harvest  of  the  fur-trappers 
and  traders  was  likewise  at  hand,  and,  besides  lesser  peltry, 
the  skins  of  the  bear  and  the  bison  began  to  be  brought  for 
ward  for  the  European  market.  Within  a  few  years  after 
Cartier  and  Roberval  ascended  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  Indians, 
having  heard  of  the  demand  for  skins,  brought  them  in  large 
quantities  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  —  as  many  as  6000  buffalo 
skins  alone  being  thus  disposed  of  in  two  years.  The  French, 
and  particularly  the  hardy  mariners  of  St.  Malo,  enjoyed  the 
monopoly  of  this  constantly-increasing  trade. 

Roberval's  title  of  "Lieutenant-General  of  Canada,  New 
foundland,  Labrador,  and  the  adjacent  territory,"  though 
rather  an  empty  honor,  it  is  true,  was  next  conferred  by  King 
Henry  IV.  upon  the  MARQUIS  DE  LA  ROCHE.  Crossing  the 
ocean  (1598)  to  take  possession  of  his  extensive  dominion,  La 
Roche  left  forty  men  on  Sable  island  —  opposite  the  southern 
point  of  Nova  Scotia  —  intending  to  return  after  he  had  further 
explored  the  coast.  But  a  storm  of  long  continuance  having 
1  06 


1604]  DE  MO  NTS.  107 

driven  his  vessel  far  off  the  shore,  he  concluded  to  go  back  to 
France.  For  some  political  offence,  La  Roche  was  thrust  into 
prison,  and,  unfortunately,  five  years  elapsed  before  the  Sable 
islanders,  now  but  twelve  in  number,  were  rescued  and  brought 
back  to  their  own  land.  They  were  conducted  into  the  pres* 
ence  of  the  king,  before  whom  they  stood  (as  described  by  a 
writer  of  the  time)  like  river-gods  of  old,  being  clad  in  shaggy 
skins  of  seals  and  foxes,  and  with  beards  of  prodigious  length, 
that  hung  from  their  swarthy  faces.  The  king  granted  them  a 
bounty,  which,  with  the  sale  of  the  furs  they  had  accumulated, 
enabled  them  to  embark  in  the  Canada  trade  on  their  own 
account. 

To  the  SIEUR  DE  MONTS  was  granted  a  patent  to  colonize 
AcadieorLa  Cadie,  which  was  described  as  the  territory  lying 
between  the  4oth  and  46th  parallels  of  north  latitude — corre 
sponding  to  the  section  included  between  the  present  Phila 
delphia  and  Montreal.  De  Monts  sailed  in  1604,  having,  as 
chief  aids  in  the  enterprise,  Pontgrave,  a  merchant  of  Brit 
tany,  and  SAMUEL  DE  CHAMPLAIN,  a  soldier  who  had  fought 
zealously  for  the  king,  and  was  now  quite  ready  for  fresh  ad 
ventures.  He  had,  a  few  years  previously,  ascended  the  St. 
Lawrence  in  the  track  of  Cartier,  as  far  as  Montreal. 

De  Monts  and  his  companions  sailed  beyond  Sable  island 
into  the  bay  of  Fundy  ;  the  Basin  of  Annapolis  was  entered, 
and  named  by  them  Port  Royal  ;  and  a  fortified  settlement 
was  established  on  the  little  island  of  St.  Croix,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  of  the  same  name,  which  partly  separates  the 
present  state  of  Maine  from  the  province  of  New  Brunswick. 

While  the  constructions  at  St.  Croix  were  progressing,  De 
Monts  and  Champlain  explored  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Maine 
and  Massachusetts.  They  gave  a  name  to  the  frowning  cliffs 
of  Mont  Desert,  now  such  a  pleasure-place  to  the  summer- 
sojourner;  they  entered  the  river  Penobscot,  which  before 
had  been  known  as  the  Norembega ;  passed  by  the  Isles  of 


lo8  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1606 

Shoals ;  and  in  several  places  landed,  holding  conferences 
with  the  Indians.  This  was  about  the  time  when  Gosnold, 
Pring  and  Weymouth,  on  behalf  of  the  English  merchants, 
were  examining  the  same  coast  and  bartering  with  the  natives 
for  furs  and  sassafras.  The  winter  at  St.  Croix  proved  a 
disastrous  one  to  the  colonists;  thirty-five  of  their  number, 
or  nearly  one-half,  dying  of  the  scurvy.  In  the  succeeding 
summer  the  settlement  was  abandoned,  and  Port  Royal,  across 
the  bay,  arose  in  its  stead. 

When  De  Monts  returned  to  France  for  additional  colonists 
and  supplies,  he  found  a  valuable  ally  in  the  person  of  MARC 
LESCARBOT,  an  advocate  and  poet — a  man  of  lively  fancy, 
but  withat  of  good  judgment.  Lescarbot  came  over  to  Port 
Royal  with  the  baron  Poutrincourt,  to  whom  De  Monts  had 
made  a  grant  of  the  new  settlement.  They  prudently  brought 
with  them  mechanics  and  laborers,  as  well  as  abundance  of 
provisions,  and  the  little  colony  started  with  a  better  promise 
of  permanency  than  had  perhaps  any  previous  settlement  in 
the  New  World.  This  was  in  the  year  1606,  one  year  before 
the  founding  of  Jamestown. 

Lescarbot  soon  made  it  evident  that  he  knew  how  to  work 
with  his  hands,  as  well  as  to  pen  verses.  In  the  meadows  near 
the  Basin  of  Annapolis,  the  grass  having  been  first  burnt  off, 
he  caused  wheat,  rye  and  barley  to  be  sown.  Near  the  fort, 
gardens  were  made,  and  so  great  was  the  zeal  of  Lescarbot, 
and  so  earnest  his  desire  to  see  the  work  prosper,  that  he  him 
self  plied  the  hoe  with  diligence.  Port  Royal  was  then  a 
quadrangle  of  wooden  buildings,  having  a  bastion  on  the  two 
water-side  corners,  and  enclosing  a  spacious  court.  The 
winter  was  passed  agreeably,  for  the  friendship  of  the  Indians 
had  been  secured,  their  chiefs  being  invited  to  sit  at  Poutrin- 
court's  table  with  the  principal  men  of  the  colony.  The 
latter  adopted  a  recommendation  of  Champlain's  that  they 
should  take  turns  in  obtaining  supplies  of  fresh  game  and 


i6ii]          THE  SETTLEMENT  OF  PORT  ROYAL.  IO9 

fish  for  the  table ;  and  as  it  would  seem  to  be  the  French 
man's  faculty  to  know  how  to  provide  for  the  larder,  there 
was  never  lack  of  fresh  provisions — venison  and  bear's  meat, 
wild  duck  and  partridge,  sturgeon  and  codfish. 

But  this  quiet  life  and  bright  prospect  for  the  future,  was 
not  destined  to  continue.  In  the  spring  came  a  vessel  from 
France,  bringing  the  unwelcome  tidings  that  the  patent  of 
De  Monts  had  been  revoked.  The  monopoly  to  him,  had, 
in  the  first  place,  been  granted  unjustly,  for  it  infringed  the 
rights  of  the  fishermen ;  and  in  the  same  spirit  it  was  taken 
away.  Merchants  of  the  Norman,  Breton,  and  Biscayan 
ports  had  loudly  complained,  using  money  freely  at  court  to 
secure  their  object,  and  therefore  the  obnoxious  patent  had 
been  withdrawn.  With  a  sad  heart  Lescarbot  left  the  gardens 
and  corn-fields  of  Port  Royal,  which  had  seemed  like  a  sort 
of  pastoral  in  his  poet's  life,  and  in  the  same  vessel  in  which 
he  had  come  over,  he  and  the  other  settlers  returned  to  their 
native  land. 

It  was  not  long  before  Poutrincourt  reappeared  at  his  pos 
session  of  Port  Royal,  and,  with  his  son  and  a  few  others, 
occupied  it  as  an  intended  fur-trading  station.  Thither  in 
1611  came  two  Jesuit  priests — Biard  and  Masse — being  the 
first  of  that  Society  who  had  appeared  in  the  wilderness  of 
New  France.  Two  years  later  another  vessel  brought  two  more 
of  the  Order,  and  a  settlement  was  begun  on  Mont  Desert 
island.  It  was  at  this  juncture  that  Argall,  from  Jamestown, 
made  his  appearance,  as  narrated  in  the  preceding  chapter. 
Having  captured  the  French  company,  he  proceeded  to  Port 
Royal,  which  he  ordered  to  be  plundered  of  its  stores  and 
then  burnt  to  the  ground,  and  by  these  unwarranted  acts 
began  that  struggle  between  the  French  and  English,  in 
America,  which  was  destined  to  continue,  with  intermissions, 
for  a  century  and  a  half. 

10 


I  io  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1608 

SAMUEL   DE   CHAMPLAIN,  THE   FOUNDER   OF   QUEBEC. 

Champlain  had  become  enamoured  with  the  wild  charms 
and  the  life  of  adventure  which  the  nearly-unexplored  conti 
nent  offered,  and  easily  persuaded  some  merchants  of  St.  Malo 
and  Dieppe,  to  provide  the  means  for  another  enterprise.  Two 
vessels  were  despatched,  one  of  them  in  charge  of  Champlain, 
the  other  being  intrusted  to  Pontgrave,  who  had  borne  an 
active  part  in  the  preceding  expedition.  Where  the  Sague- 
nay,  darkly  flowing  between  gloomy  walls  of  precipitous  rock, 
enters  the  broad  St.  Lawrence,  is  situated  the  town  of  Tadou- 
sac,  which  was  at  that  time,  and  for  a  long  while  continued 
to  be,  the  centre  of  the  Canadian  fur-trade.  Here  Pontgrave 
loaded  his  vessels,  while  Champlain  continued  up  the  river 
to  the  isle  of  Orleans,  and  on  the  mainland,  opposite  the 
island's  upper  extremity,  founded  QUEBEC  in  the  summer  of 
1608. 

Until  cold  weather  came,  the  men  employed  themselves  in 
building  several  houses  for  their  accommodation,  and  also 
in  constructing  a  strong  palisade  for  their  protection  ;  while 
part  of  the  adjoining  ground  was  laid  out  as  a  garden,  and 
herein  Champlain,  like  Lescarbot,  preferred  to  find  employ 
ment.  But  their  comfortable  houses  and  surrounding  wall, 
which  shielded  them  from  the  wintry  blasts,  were  not  proof 
against  the  inroads  of  the  scurvy,  which  pestilent  disease  car 
ried  away  all  but  eight  of  the  twenty-eight  settlers.  Pontgrave 
who  in  the  meantime  had  been  to  France,  brought  them  re 
lief  in  the  spring.  Then  Champlain,  impatient  of  confine 
ment,  and  eager  to  begin  his  cherished  plans  of  exploration, 
readily  acceded  to  the  solicitation  of  certain  Algonquin  In 
dians,  from  the  Ottawa,  to  join  them  in  a  foray  against  their 
bitter  enemies,  the  Iroquois.  The  Ottawas  were  to  be  joined 
by  their  allies,  the  Hurons,  which  tribe,  though  of  the  same 
race  as  the  Iroquois,  were,  nevertheless,  their  enemies. 


1608]  SAMUEL   DE   CHAMPLAIN.  m 

Several  hundred  of  the  Ottawas  started  up  the  St.  Lawrence, 
accompanied  by  Champlain  and  eleven  men — the  French  be 
ing  all  armed  with  the  arquebuse,  a  short  firelock  which  was 
generally  furnished  with  a  forked  rest  when  in  use.  Upon 
arriving  at  the  river  Richelieu  or  Sorel,  they  followed  its 
southward  course  into  that  long,  narrow  lake,  which  became 
known  as  the  Champlain.  Far  down  its  western  shore  were 
descried  the  canoes  of  the  Iroquois.  The  Frenchmen  at  once 
clad  themselves  in  their  light  armor  of  steel — the  casque, 
breastplate  and  thigh-pieces — while  the  Iroquois,  unaware  of 
the  presence  of  such  potent  antagonists,  advanced  briskly 
against  them.  But  the  arquebuse  quickly  did  its  work.  Levelled 
at  a  chief,  the  report  came  like  a  thunderbolt  to  the  discon 
certed  savages;  and,  while  the  victim  writhed  in  agony  upon 
the  ground,  another  and  another  shot  followed  with  equally 
deadly  effect.  The  battle  resulted  in  disaster  to  the  Iroquois, 
while  the  allies,  elated  with  their  sanguinary  triumph,  returned 
with  their  prisoners  northward. 

Champlain  had  wickedly  promised  to  again  assist  the  allies 
against  their  common  enemy,  with  the  understanding  that  the 
Ottawas  should  guide  him  northward  to  the  wonderful  bay — 
that  of  Hudson — of  which  rumor  had  reached  him  ;  while  the 
Hurons,  on  their  part,  should  lead  him  to  the  chain  of  great 
lakes  which  were  the  reservoirs  of  the  St.  Lawrence.  At  the 
rendezvous,  which  was  appointed  to  be  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Richelieu,  in  the  following  year,  Champlain  and  a  few 
of  his  companions  met  part  of  the  allies.  These  were  here 
surprised,  and  would  probably  have  been  overcome  by  an  in 
vading  band  of  the  Iroquois,  but  the  arquebuse  again  caused 
the  discomfiture  of  the  latter ;  a  barricade  which  they  had 
erected  was  scaled,  and  nearly  all  its  defenders  were  slaugh 
tered.  The  words  of  Champlain,  in  his  account,  were — "By 
the  grace  of  God,  behold  the  battle  won!"  Yet  he  had 
simply  bargained  to  become  the  executioner  of  these  people, 


H2  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1615 

• 

for  the  privilege  of  being  shown  a  great  bay  and  a  chain  of 
lakes  !  The  body  of  one  of  the  Iroquois  was  quartered,  and 
eaten  by  the  Indian  captors,  probably  to  infuse  some  of  its 
superior  prowess  into  their  own  systems. 

It  was  then  a  common  Indian  practice  to  devour  the  heart  of  a 
great  warrior  who  had  been  slain  in  battle.  Cannibalism  did  not 
prevail  as  a  usage,  though  an  enemy  was  occasionally  eaten,  as  in 
the  instance  cited  above.  Amongst  the  Canada  Algonquins,  whose 
reliance  for  food  was  almost  entirely  on  hunting,  their  dead  com 
panions  were  frequently  eaten  to  avoid  famine.  With  some  of  the 
tribes  it  was  practised  as  a  religious  rite.  There  was  one  clan  or 
family  of  the  Miamis,  with  whom  the  eating  of  the  bodies  of  pris 
oners  burnt  to  death,  was  a  hereditary  duty  and  privilege. 

Professing  to  have  the  conversion  of  the  Indians  of  New 
France  deeply  at  heart,  Champlain  returned  to  France,  and  en 
listed  in  the  mission  cause  that  reformed  and  austere  branch  of 
Franciscan  friars,  called  the  Recollets.  Four  of  these  came 
back  with  him  in  1615  to  Quebec,  and  established  there  the 
first  convent  in  Canada.  Champlain  now  agreed  a  third  time 
to  extend  warlike  aid  to  the  Canada  Indian^.  With  a  few 
followers,  he  ascended  the  Ottawa  river  to  Lake  Nipissing, 
whose  tribe  of  the  same  name  (the  Nipissings)  were  called  by 
the  Jesuits,  the  "Sorcerers,"  on  account  of  the  great  prevalence 
of  magicians,  and  the  supposed  abundance  of  demons  and 
spirits  among  them.  They  did  not  tarry  in  this  uninviting 
company,  but  proceeded  on  their  way  to  the  Georgian  bay  of 
Lake  Huron,  and  here  found  Le  Caron,  one  of  the  four  friars, 
who  had  gone  on  in  advance  to  establish  a  mission-station  at 
the  village  of  the  Hurons. 

Leaving  the  priest  to  attend  to  the  souls  of  the  women  and 
children,  Champlain  went  forward  with  the  warriors  to  help 
them  murder  their  enemies.  They  crossed  Lake  Ontario  at  its 
eastern  end,  then  struck  south-westward  to  the  neighborhood 
of  Seneca  Lake,  where  was  located  the  tribe  of  Senecas,  the  most 


1632]  SAMUEL   DE   CHAMPLAIN.  113 

westerly  of  the  Five  Nations-  The  Hurons  had  expected  to 
be  joined  by  a  large  band  of  Eries,  from  the  country  south  of 
the  lake  of  that  name,  but  these  not  appearing,  an  attack  was 
made  on  the  Senecas,  who  were  intrenched  in  a  strong  pali- 
sadoed  fort,  30  feet  high,  having  a  gallery  all  around  near  the 
top.  This  time  the  assailants  were  driven  off,  and  Champlain 
being  wounded,  the  Canadian  Indians  returned  to  their  own 
country.  The  policy  inaugurated  by  this  leader,  was  that 
which  was  usually  followed  by  the  French  so  long  as  they  re 
tained  their  American  possessions,  namely — that  of  making 
the  Canada  Indians  their  dependents,  by  inciting  and  aiding 
them  against  their  native  enemies,  thus  securing  in  return 
their  help  against  the  English.  The  English,  on  their  part, 
made  friends  of  the  Iroquois,  with  the  same  end  in  view. 

In  1622  the  Iroquois,  smarting  under  their  first  defeats,  made  an 
incursion  as  far  as  the  little  settlement  of  Quebec,  but  were  too 
wary  of  the  fatal  fire-arms  of  the  French,  to  directly  assault  the 
place. 

The  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  of  New  France  was  for  a  short 
time  given  to  two  Huguenot  merchants,  but  much  quarrelling  ensued 
between  their  adherents  and  the  Papists,  so  that  the  latter  obtained 
the  grant  again  from  Cardinal  Richelieu,  who  then  wielded  the  chief 
power  in  France.  He  in  fact  organized  the  "  Company  of  New 
France,"  composed  of  100  associates,  with  almost  unlimited  powers 
over  the  French-American  dominion,  and  a  monopoly  of  its  fur 
trade.  But,  just  at  that  time  there  was  war  with  the  English,  and 
Port  Royal  and  the  trading-posts  at  Tadousac  and  Quebec  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  latter.  They  were  restored  to  the  French,  how 
ever,  in  1632  ;  and  three  years  afterward,  Champlain,  who  had 
been  appointed  commandant  at  Quebec,  died  there.  We  wish  not 
to  do  any  injustice  to  the  character  of  that  patient  explorer  and 
intrepid  fighter  ;  yet  it  is  evident  that  his  acts  partook  strongly  of 
that  blood-thirsty  type  of  Christianity  which  is  of  another  nature 
from  the  conquests  of  the  sword  of  the  Spirit,  whose  captives  are 
love,  joy,  peace,  gentleness,  goodness,  etc.  The  very  opposite  of 
these  attributes  were  the  results  of  Champlain's  campaigns. 
10* 


H4  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1634 


THE  JESUIT  MISSIONS. 

The  Recollet  priests  were  soon  interdicted  from  missionary 
work  in  Canada;  that  field  of  labor,  through  the  influence  of 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  having  been  committed  to  the  Jesuits. 
The  zeal  which  has  ever  characterized  the  disciples  of  Loyola, 
appears  to  have  proceeded  in  very  many  instances  from  an 
intense  desire  to  propagate  the  Romish  faith,  to  this  end  in 
volving  an  implicit  obedience  to  the  will  of  their  superiors  in 
the  church.  Nevertheless,  their  early  labors  in  Canada  were 
certainly  actuated  to  a  large  degree  by  sincerely  pious  motives : 
patience  and  unvarying  kindness  marked  their  intercourse  with 
the  natives,  in  whose  hearts  the  strongholds  of  sensuality,  in 
dolence,  and,  above  all,  of  superstition,  were  to  be  overcome. 
And,  although  the  last  evil  was  not  so  much  removed,  as  it 
was  lessened  by  a  milder  substitute,  still  their  efforts  in  soften 
ing  the  brute  nature  were  crowned  with  considerable  success. 
It  was  their  hope  that,  in  the  wilderness  of  New  France,  the 
same  good  results  would  follow  their  labors  as  had  been  wit 
nessed  with  kindred  missions  in  Brazil  and  Paraguay. 

As  the  method  of  obtaining  the  confidence  of  the  Indians,  which 
was  practised  by  the  first  Portuguese  Jesuits  in  Paraguay,  was  so 
successful,  we  will  quote  what  is  said  of  their  plan  of  conciliation 
there  :  "  The  Jesuits  took  with  them  a  stock  of  maize  as  provision 
in  the  wilderness,  where  the  bows  of  the  Indians  did  not  supply  them 
with  game,  for  they  carefully  avoided  carrying  fire-arms  lest  they 
should  excite  alarm  or  suspicion.  When  they  arrived  amongst  the 
tribes  they  sought,  they  explained  through  their  interpreters  that 
they  came  thus  and  threw  themselves  into  their  power,  to  prove  to 
them  that  they  were  their  friends  ;  to  teach  them  the  arts,  and  to 
endow  them  with  the  advantages  of  the  Europeans.  They  speedily 
inspired  the  Indians  with  confidence  in  their  good  intentions  tor 
wards  them  ;  for  the  natives  of  every  country  yet  discovered  have 
been  found  as  quick  in  recognizing  their  friends  as  they  have  been 
in  resenting  the  injuries  of  their  enemies."  As  a  consequence,  the 
natives  exhibited  much  improvement  in  their  lives,  and  were  gathered 


1634]  THE   JESUIT  MISSIONS.  115 

into  communities  styled  Reductions,  which  became  noted  as  marvels 
of  good  order  and  peacefulness  ;  but  these  were  broken  up  by  the 
Spanish  and  Portuguese  themselves,  under  circumstances  of  ex 
ceeding  barbarity. 

The  Jesuits  arrived  at  Quebec  shortly  before  the  death  of 
Champlain,  and  besides  establishing  stations  at  the  four 
trading-posts  on  the  St.  Lawrence,  they  sent  BREBEUF  and 
others  (1634)  to  the  Huron  country,  to  re-open  the  mission 
there.  The  locality  of  the  Huron  nation  was  a  well-defined 
one  ;  they  were  an  agricultural  people,  and,  had  not  the  Iro- 
quois  proved  such  "  thorns  in  their  sides,"  or  the  white  men 
intruded,  they  would  most  likely  have  been  found  in  their 
habitations  by  the  lake  to  this  day.  Their  villages,  which 
contained  altogether  over  15,000  persons,  were  in  that  small 
section  of  Upper  Canada  included  between  Lake  Simcoe  and 
the  Georgian  bay  of  Lake  Huron.  South  of  their  territory, 
and  along  the  north  side  of  Lake  Erie,  was  the  Neutral 
Nation,  who  formed  a  sort  of  barrier  between  the  former  and 
the  Iroquois  of  New  York.  The  Huron  houses  were  pecu 
liarly  constructed  of  a  framework  of  poles,  drawn  together  at 
the  top,  and  covered  with  bark;  sometimes  extending  a  dis 
tance  of  over  200  feet  in  length,  and  of  course  containing 
many  families  under  the  one  roof. 

Brebeuf  and  his  associates  met  with  great  opposition  from 
the  sorcerers  and  medicine-men  ;  and  when,  upon  the  arrival 
of  additional  priests,  the  smallpox  appeared  in  the  villages, 
the  scourge  was  attributed  to  the  malignant  influence  of  the 
"Black  Robes."  The  sprinkling  of  infants,  as  a  religious 
rite,  the  Indians  held  to  be  a  certain  evidence  of  sorcery. 
The  Jesuits  were  persistent  in  this  practice,  which  they  held 
to  be  of  the  first  importance,  and  as  they  were  constantly 
watching  for  opportunities  to  make  use  of  it,  it  seemed  at 
times  as  though  they  would  all,  without  doubt,  be  murdered. 
One  of  their  number,  named  JOGUES,  having  gone  with  several 


UNIVERSITY 

OF 


Il6  HISTORY  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES.  [1650 

companions  to  Quebec  for  supplies,  was  captured  on  the  St. 
Lawrence  by  a  band  of  Mohawks,  and  besides  being  severely 
bruised  and  lacerated,  was  carried  to  their  towns  in  Eastern 
New  York,  and,  in  each  of  them,  was  obliged  to  "run  the 
gauntlet,"  and  submit  to  excessive  tortures.  After  several 
months'  imprisonment,  Jogues  escaped  down  the  Hudson,  and 
returned  to  France ;  but  having  come  back  to  the  missions,  he 
again  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Iroquois,  and  was  massacred. 

Since  the  defeats  inflicted  upon  the  Iroquois  or  Five  Nations 
by  the  Hurons  and  Ottawas,  with  the  aid  of  Champlain,  the 
former  had  been  incessant  in  their  forays  into  Canada;  and 
now  that  they  too  had  become  possessed  of  fire-arms  by 
trading  with  the  Dutch,  they  were  prepared  to  execute  sum 
mary  vengeance  upon  their  enemies.  It  was  in  1649  and 
1650  that  the  memorable  Iroquois  onset  upon  the  Hurons, 
and  the  complete  dispersion  of  the  latter,  occurred.  Of  the 
survivors  of  that  dreadful  attack  many  died  of  famine ;  many 
who  had  been  taken  prisoners  were  burnt  to  death  or  toma 
hawked  ;  while  a  few  were  permitted  to  incorporate  them 
selves  with  the  Iroquois  tribes.  The  remnant  afterwards 
dropped  the  name  of  Hurons,  and  became  known  as  the 
Wyandottes.  Brebeuf  was  among  the  number  massacred,  and 
the  mission  itself  was  shortly  removed  to  Quebec.  The  fierce 
and  powerful  tribe  of  the  Eries  was  also  exterminated :  no 
trace  of  them  now  remains  save  the  name. 

After  war  and  disease  and  famine  had  so  wasted  the  Canada 
Indians,  there  appeared  yet  other  antagonists,  more  subtle, 
but  no  less  powerful.  Brandy  and  the  evil  men  who  brought 
it,  were  the  worst  of  enemies,  as  well  to  the  Indians  as  to  the 
missions.  Previous  to  1662  the  Jesuits  had  forbidden  the 
sale  of  brandy,  but  about  that  time  the  governor  of  Canada* 
granted  licenses,  and  though  the  remonstrances  of  the  mis 
sionaries  prevailed  for  awhile  to  stop  the  traffic,  yet  the  king's 
secretary  gave  the  permit,  and  thus  the  flood-gate  of  disaster 


17 1 6]  THE   JESUIT  MISSIONS.  117 

was  opened.  The  specious  plea  of  the  secretary  against  the 
prohibition  was  as  follows:  "This  [prohibition]  is  doubtless 
a  good  principle,  but  one  which  is  very  ruinous  to  trade,  be 
cause  the  Indians,  being  passionately  fond  of  these  liquors, 
instead  of  coming  to  trade  their  peltries  with  us,  go  trade 
them  among  the  Dutch,  who  supply  them  with  brandy.  This 
also  is  disadvantageous  to  religion ;  for,  having  wherewith  to 
gratify  their  appetites,  they  allow  themselves  to  be  catechized 
by  the  Dutch  ministers,  who  instruct  them  in  heresy." 

The  Jesuits,  much  to  their  credit,  still  continued  their  en 
deavors  to  stop  the  evil,  and,  in  1716,  the  priest  Lafitau  pre 
sented  a  petition  to  the  Canadian  council  urging  the  abolition 
of  the  brandy  trade,  in  which  he  speaks  of  its  woful  effects 
upon  the  Indians,  in  these  words:  "When  the  people  are 
intoxicated  they  become  so  furious  that  they  break  and 
destroy  everything  belonging  to  their  households;  cry  and 
howl  terribly,  and  go  in  quest,  like  madmen,  of  their  ene 
mies,  to  poignard  them ;  their  relatives  and  friends  are  not  at 
those  times  safe  from  their  rage.  Several  of  their  tribes  have 
been  almost  wholly  destroyed  by  brandy,  particularly  the 
Algonquin  nation."  In  reply  to  this  petition,  the  Canadian 
council  reported  that,  "All  agree  as  to  the  inconvenience  of 
the  trade  in  brandy,  but  at  the  same  time  it  is  necessary." 
First  declaring  it  to  be  wrong,  they  then  agreed  that  it  could 
not  be  dispensed  with. 

A  recent  secretary  of  the  London  Missionary  Society  says  :  "  I 
beg  leave  to  add  the  desirableness  of  preventing,  by  every  practi 
cable  means,  the  introduction  of  ardent  spirits  among  the  inhabi 
tants  of  the  countries  we  may  visit  or  colonize.  There  is  nothing 
more  injurious  to  the  South  Sea  Islanders  than  seamen  who  have 
absconded  from  ships,  setting  up  huts  for  the  retail  of  ardent 
spirits,  which  are  the  resort  of  the  indolent  and  the  vicious  of  the 
crews  of  the  vessels,  and  in  which,  under  the  influence  of  intoxica 
tion,  scenes  of  immorality  and  even  murder  have  been  exhibited 
almost  beyond  what  the  natives  witnessed  among  themselves  while 
they  were  heathen." 


CHAPTER    X. 

THE   SETTLEMENT   OF   NEW   NETHERLAND. 
1609 — 1664. 


THE  TRADING-POST  AT   NEW   AMSTERDAM. 

AN  English  navigator  named  HENRY  HUDSON,  in  the  em 
ploy  of  London  merchants,  had,  like  Frobisher,  made  several 
fruitless  voyages  in  search  of  the  north-west  passage,  as  well 
as  north-eastward  by  Spitzbergen  and  Nova  Zembla.  With 
the  expectation,  as  it  appeared,  of  reaching  India,  directly 
across  the  north  pole,  he  still  continued  his  solicitations,  but 
the  scheme  meeting  with  no  farther  encouragement  in  Eng 
land,  he  applied  to  the  Dutch.  That  nation  had  but  recently 
escaped  from  the  domination  of  Spain,  and  its  thrifty  mer 
chants  were  sending  vessels  in  all  directions,  reaching  out  for 
a  supremacy  of  maritime  commerce.  They  were  depriving 
the  Portuguese  of  their  rich  possessions  in  India,  while  that 
great  monopoly — the  Dutch  East  India  Company — had  been 
formed,  with  branches  in  the  principal  cities  of  the  Nether 
lands.  The  Dutch  had  suddenly  become  the  Phoenicians  of 
modern  times. 

The  application  of  Hudson  having  been  made  to  the  Am 
sterdam  branch  of  the  great  corporation,  he  was  furnished 
with  a  vessel,  the  Half-Moon,  and,  in  the  year  1609,  pro 
ceeded  to  try  again  his  fortune  in  the  Arctic  regions.  Frus 
trated  in  his  design — as  every  explorer  for  the  "pole"  has 
been,  even  to  the  present  day — Hudson  directed  his  course 
118 


1 609]     THE   TRADING-POST  AT  NEW  A  MS  TERDA  M.    1 1  g 

along  the  shores  of  Acadie  and  New  England  to  Chesapeake 
bay ;  thence,  proceeding  again  northward,  entered  that  beau 
tiful  haven  which  Verrazzani  had  visited  in  1524,  and  which 
became  known  a  few  years  later  as  the  Bay  of  New  York. 
The  river,  thence  known  as  the  Hudson,  he  ascended  as  far 
as  the  Catskills ;  but  the  Indians,  who  were  wonder-struck  at 
sight  of  the  vessels,  he  treated  badly,  and  consequently  they 
rejoiced  when  his  vessels'  sails  were  spread,  and  he  and  his 
crew  departed  down  the  river. 

"  It  is  a  striking  coincidence  that  the  Iroquois  Indians  were  first 
unhappily  made  acquainted  with  their  two  greatest  enemies,  Rum 
and  Gunpowder,  by  the  rival  discoverers,  Hudson  and  Champlain, 
during  the  same  week  of  the  same  year,  1609.  While  Henry 
Hudson  was  cautiously  feeling  his  way,  as  he  supposed,  into  the 
Northern  Ocean,  through  the  channel  of  the  river  which  bears  his 
name,  Champlain  was  accompanying  a  war-party  of  the  Hurons 
against  the  Iroquois,  upon  the  lake  receiving  its  name  from  him. 
Hudson  discovered  a  company  of  the  Iroquois  upon  the  banks  of 
the  river,  whom  he  regaled  with  rum.  Champlain  discovered  a 
body  of  Iroquois  warriors  upon  the  coast  of  the  lake,  near  the  spot 
afterwards  selected  for  the  site  of  Ticonderoga,  and  there  first 
taught  them  the  fatal  power  of  gunpowder,'1''  (W.  L.  Stone.) 

By  virtue  of  this  discovery  of  Hudson's  while  sailing  under 
the  Dutch  flag,  that  nation  claimed  all  the  territory  extending 
from  the  Delaware  or  South  Bay  to  Cape  Cod,  and  conferred 
upon  it  the  name  of  NEW  NETHERLAND.  The  following  year 
Hudson  entered  and  explored  the  great  bay  north  of  Canada. 
Rumors  of  this  voyage  had  come  to  the  ears  of  Champlain, 
who  had  hoped,  with  the  assistance  of  the  natives,  to  arrive 
at  that  body  of  water  overland. 

Scarcely  had  the  Dutch  taken  formal  possession  of  their 
American  dominion  by  erecting  a  fortified  trading-house  on 
Manhattan  island,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  than  Argall 
appeared  from  Virginia  and  disputed  their  right  to  the  soil. 
But  nothing  more  serious  ensued  for  the  time,  than  the  haul- 


120  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1621 

ing  down  of  their  flag.  An  Amsterdam  company  having 
received  from  the  States-General  of  Holland  the  exclusive 
privilege  of  trade  for  three  years  to  New  Netherland,  several 
vessels  were  sent  out  in  1615,  one  of  which  under  CAPTAIN 
MAY  (or  Mey)  entered  the  Delaware  bay.  The  northern 
cape  at  its  entrance  received  the  name  of  the  captain,  while 
the  river  itself  was  called  the  South  river,  in  distinction  from 
the  Hudson,  which  was  also  known  as  the  North  river. 

Another  of  the  vessels  sailed  by  way  of  East  river  into 
Long  Island  sound,  and  discovered  the  Housatonic  and  also 
the  Connecticut  river — although  the  latter,  for  awhile,  was 
known  as  the  Fresh-water,  in  distinction  from  the  Hudson, 
the  waters^of  which  were  salt.  The  commander,  whose  name 
was  BLOCK,  and  whose  explorations  are  commemorated  in- the 
name  of  the  small  island  south-west  of  Newport,  sailed  as  far 
as  Cape  Cod. 

There  was  established,  the  same  year  (1615),  a  trading-post 
upon  the  Hudson  near  the  present  site  of  Albany,  but  it  was 
soon  superseded  by  the  erection  of  Fort  Orange.  Hither  the 
Five  Nations,  and  especially  the  Mohawk  tribe,  resorted,  and 
received  in  trade  those  fire-arms  which  made  them  so  formid 
able  to  the  French  and  the  Indians  of  Canada.  Around  the 
mouth  of  the  river  were  the  Manhattans,  a  tribe  of  the  great 
Algonquin  race.  They  received  in  payment  for  the  whole 
island  of  Manhattan  the  sum  of  sixty  guilders,  equivalent  to 
twenty-four  dollars;  or  about  as  much  as  would  be  charged  an 
Indian  chief  at  this  day  for  staying  less  than  a  week  at  one  of 
its  palatial  city  hotels. 

The  management  of  New  Netherland  affairs  passed,  in 
1621,  into  the  hands  of  a  new  corporation,  which  had  been 
formed  under  the  title  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Company. 
Its  exclusive  jurisdiction  of  trade  and  settlement  embraced 
the  whole  Atlantic-American  coasts,  as  well  as  the  coast  of 
Africa  from  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  down  to  the  Cape  of  Good 


1629]        THE  DIRECTORS  AND    THE   PATROONS.          121 

Hope.  Like  the  East  India  Company,  it  was  divided  into 
several  branches  or  chambers,  located  in  five  of  the  chief 
Dutch  cities ;  while  its  affairs  were  managed  by  a  board  of 
directors,  called  the  Assembly  of  Nineteen.  Captain  May 
was  sent  out  with  instructions  to  build  two  forts  in  the  Neth- 
erland  province ;  one  of  them  Fort  Orange  on  the  Hudson, 
mentioned  above,  and  the  other  on  the  east  side  of  the  Dela 
ware  river  near  Red  Bank,  which  was  called  Fort  Nassau. 
Several  years  later  another  fort  and  trading-post  for  furs,  called 
Beversreede,  was  built  at  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill,  nearly 
opposite  Nassau. 

THE  DUTCH   DIRECTORS  AND   THE   PATROONS. 

PETER  MINUITS  came  out  in  1625,  as  Director  or  Governor 
for  the  company. '  With  him  came  the  first  regular  colonists, 
for  those  who  had  preceded  them  were  but  traders  who  had 
not  as  yet  decided  to  make  their  homes,  though  they  might 
make  their  fortunes,  in  the  New  World.  These  colonists 
who  were  Walloons,  from  the  French  Netherland  frontier, 
established  themselves  on  the  north-west  corner  of  Long 
Island,  around  Wallabout  bay.  Staten  Island  was  also  pur 
chased  from  the  Indians.  At  the  southern  extremity  of  Man 
hattan  island  (the  Battery),  Minuits  caused  to  be  erected  a 
block-house,  surrounded  by  a  palisade  of  cedars,  and  called 
it  Fort  Amsterdam.  The  director,  his  council  and  the  sheriff, 
constituted  the  local  government  on  behalf  of  the  company ; 
they  could  make  and  execute  the  laws,  and  likewise  act  as 
rjudges  in  matters  of  dispute. 

In  1629,  the  West  India  Company  received  the  assent  of 
the  States-General  to  a  scheme  of  colonization,  which  allowed 
them  to  confer  the  title  of  Patroon,  with  feudal  privileges, 
upon  such  of  their  number  as  would,  within  four  years,  cause 
fifty  grown  persons  to  settle  in  New  Netherland,  upon  any 

F  II 


122  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1629 

tract  of  land  granted  to  such  patroon  for  that  purpose.  The 
size  of  the  tract  was  limited  to  an  extent  of  sixteen  miles  on 
the  sea-shore  or  on  a  navigable  river,  the  distance  inland  not 
being  specially  noted.  The  recipients  of  the  land  were  to 
extinguish  the  Indian  title  to  the  same.  The  company  re 
served  to  themselves  the  island  of  Manhattan  and  the  fur 
trade,  while  they  required  the  patroons  to  pay  them  a  per 
centage  upon  all  trade  in  which  they  engaged.  The  colonists 
were  prohibited  from  making  any  woollen,  linen  or  cotton 
cloth,  or  other  woven  stuff,  on  pain  of  banishment  and  of 
punishment  as  "perjurers," —  a  sort  of  regulation  very  com 
monly  practised  with  colonial  people  to  keep  them  dependent, 
by  compelling  the  exportation  of  their  native  productions 
in  exchange  for  all  manufactured  articles  of  the  mother 
country. 

Estrada  observes,  that  the  Spanish  government,  in  order  to  hold 
its  American  subjects  in  greater  subjection  to  its  own  dominion,  con 
ceived  that  the  best  method  for  accomplishing  that  end  was  to  pro 
hibit  their  manufacturing  any  of  the  same  articles  that  were  made 
in  Spain,  or  from  growing  on  their  soil  any  of  her  productions. 
Hence  they  were  forbidden  to  rival  the  wine,  oil,  almond,  silk,  cloth, 
glass,  etc.,  of  the  mother  country,  on  which  they  became  dependent 
for  their  supplies  of  these  articles.  Such  also,  as  we  shall  see,  was 
the  policy  of  England  toward  her  American  colonies. 

In  pursuance  of  these  concessions,  some  of  the  leading 
members  of  the  company  proceeded  to  select  for  themselves 
the  most  inviting  tracts  in  the  territory.  On  both  sides  of 
the  Delaware  bay,  above  Capes  May  and  Henlopen,  lands 
were  taken  up,  and  called  by  the  name  of  "Swansdale  ;"  a 
director  of  the  company,  named  Pauw,  secured  the  Hoboken 
and  Staten  Island  localities  on  New  York  harbor,  calling 
that  portion  on  the  mainland  "Pavonia;"  while  above  and 
below  Fort  Orange  (which  itself  was  not  ceded)  lands  were 
purchased,  and  subsequently  added  to,  which  formed  the 


1633]  MINUITS  AND    VAN  TW1LLER,  123 

large  and  important  manor  of  "Rensselaerswick."  Yet  the 
privileges  granted  to  the  patroons  became  a  source  of  no  little 
trouble,  for  those  proprietors  aimed  at  the  fur  trade  with  the 
Indians,  notwithstanding  the  company's  prohibition.  Thus, 
starting  as  traders,  and  not — as  had  been  intended  by  the 
company — as  settled  colonists,  their  occupancy  proved  a 
decided  hindrance  to  the  progress  of  the  province.  Farmers 
indeed  were  sent  out,  who  worked  on  shares  of  rent,  and  in 
dentured  servants  were  employed  as  in  Virginia  ;  but  conten 
tions  between  the  patroons  and  their  tenants  arose  at  the  very 
outset. 

In  1633  WALTER  VAN  TWILLER  succeeded  Minuits  as  Direc 
tor  of  the  colony.  Within  a  few  months  after  his  arrival  from 
Holland,  there  arose  serious  disputes  with  the  English,  who 
were  then'  rapidly  occupying  New  England,  and  were  about 
to  encroach  upon  land  which  the  Dutch  claimed  as  their  own. 
The  most  threatening  complication  was  in  regard  to  the  pos 
session  of  the  Connecticut  river. 

A  tract  of  land  at  the  river's  mouth  had  been  purchased 
from  the  Indians  by  the  Dutch,  and  their  national  arms  affixed 
to  a  tree ;  while  farther  up  the  river  a  second  tract,  near  the 
present  city  of  Hartford,  had  been  obtained  from  the  Pequod 
tribe,  and  a  fortified  trading-post  established,  called  the  House 
of  Good  Hope.  Shortly  after,  there  arrived  a  bark  at  New 
Amsterdam  from  Boston,  which,  while  it  was  the  forerunner 
of  the  trade  between  the  two  cities,  also  brought  despatches 
from  Governor  Winthrop,  expostulating  against  the  Dutch 
occupation  of  the  Connecticut,  which  he  claimed  for  certain 
lords  and  gentlemen,  subjects  of  the  king  of  England.  Van 
Twiller,  in  reply,  suggested  referring  the  dispute  to  their  re 
spective  governments ;  but,  meantime,  the  Plymouth  colony, 
without  the  concurrence  of  the  colony  of  Massachusetts  Bay, 
erected  a  trading-house  (Windsor)  on  the  river,  just  above  the 
House  of  Good  Hope,  and  which  the  Dutch  permitted  to 


124  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [163 

remain.  Emigrants  from  Massachusetts  also  .settled  near  the 
Dutch  fort  or  "House,"  and  likewise  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river,  where  a  fort  was  erected  on  behalf  of  the  English  pro 
prietors — so  that  it  seemed  as  though  the  Dutch  would 
presently  be  altogether  excluded  from  the  river. 

Meanwhile  Van  Twiller  applied  himself  to  the  improvement 
of  New  Amsterdam.  The  fort  was  rebuilt,  and  barracks, 
mills  and  other  buildings  erected.  A  brewery  and  a  number 
of  other  houses  were  built  upon  the  farm  or  "  bowery,"  num 
ber  one,  which  was  the  property  of  the  West  India  Company. 
Yet  the  astute  director,  while  managing  for  the  company,  did 
not  altogether  forego  his  own  interests.  From  the  Indians 
he  obtained  a  grant  of  Governor's  island  in  the  harbor,  and, 
together  with  several  officials,  purchased  from  the  native 
owners,  but  without  permission  of  the  company,  a  fertile  tract 
of  land  on  Long  Island,  where  arose  the  settlement  of  Flat- 
lands.  Complaints  of  these  and  other  matters  having  reached 
Holland,  Van  Twiller  was  recalled  after  he  had  continued  five 
years  in  the  office;  and,  in  1638,  WILLIAM  KIEFT  was  appointed 
to  succeed  him. 

NEW    SWEDEN. 

The  dispute  with  New  England  respecting  the  ownership  of 
the  Connecticut  territory,  was  very  soon  followed  by  an  alarm 
from  a  like  cause,  but  in  the  opposite  quarter.  From  Queen 
Christina,  of  Sweden — daughter  of  the  celebrated  Gustavus 
Adolphus — Peter  Minuits,  the  former  director  of  New  Nether- 
land,  obtained  assistance  to  establish  a  Swedish  trading-post 
and  settlement  in  America.  The  desire  of  colonization  in 
the  New  World  had  been  strongly  favored  by  Adolphus  and 
by  his  prime  minister,  the  chancellor  Oxenstiern ;  and  it  is 
worthy  of  remark  that  they  contemplated  a  colony  of  freemen, 
it  being  their  belief  that  "slaves  cost  a  great  deal,  labor  with 
reluctance,  and  soon  perish  from  hard  usage.  The  Swedish 


1 643]  NEW  SWEDEN.  125 

nation  is  laborious  and  intelligent,  and  surely  we  shall  gain 
more  by  a  free  people  with  wives  and  children." 

Just  at  the  time  that  Kieft  entered  upon  his  directorship 
(1638)  Minuits  and  fifty  men,  in  an  armed  vessel — the  Key 
of  Calmar — sailed  to  the  head  of  Delaware  bay,  and  on  its 
west  shore,  near  where  Wilmington  stands,  purchased  a 
tract  of  land  from  the  Minquaas  tribe,  and  erected  thereon 
Fort  Christina.  This  was  the  beginning  of  the  little  colony 
of  NEW  SWEDEN. 

The  strong  protestations  of  Kieft  that  the  whole  of  the 
South  or  Delaware  river  and  bay,  belonged  to  the  Dutch,  were 
not  heeded  by  Minuits,  who,  leaving  the  fort  well-garri 
soned  and  supplied  with  provisions,  went  back  to  Sweden. 
That  country  was  then  a  warlike  state,  and  the  aggression  was 
for  the  time,  submitted  to  by  the  West  India  Company.  Two 
or  three  years  later,  however,  a  fresh  trouble  appeared.  The 
Connecticut  people,  also  desiring  to  establish  a  trading  settle 
ment  on  the  Delaware,  fifty  English  families  sailed  from  New 
Haven,  touching  first  at  New  Amsterdam  to  notify  Kieft  of 
their  intention.  As  their  minds  were  fully  made  up  to  settle, 
they  paid  no  regard  to  the  director's  protest,  but  continued 
on  to  the  Delaware,  and  located  on  Salem  creek  and  on  the 
Schuylkill.  This  intrusion  raised  the  ire  of  the  Swedes  as 
well  as  of  the  Dutch,  whereupon  the  forces  of  both  uniting, 
the  new  settlers  were  obliged  to  declare  allegiance  to  Sweden, 
while  the  Dutch  exacted  from  the  English  leader  full  pay 
ment  of  duties  upon  the  furs  for  which  he  had  traded. 

In  1643  came  JOHN  PRINTZ,  deputed  by  Queen  Christina  to 
be  her  governor  of  New  Sweden.  Upon  Tinicum  island, 
below  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill,  where  the  Lazaretto  build 
ings  now  stand,  the  governor  erected  a  fort  of  hemlock  logs, 
and  also  a  "  palace"  for  himself,  called  Printz  Hall,  which  was 
subsequently  surrounded  by  a  fine  orchard  and  pleasure 
grounds.  The  queen's  instructions  to  the  governor,  were  to 

11* 


126  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1643 

administer  the  laws  of  Sweden,  and,  so  far  as  practicable,  its 
manners  and  customs;  to  promote  diligently  all  profitable 
branches  of  industry,  such  as  the  culture  of  grain,  tobacco,  the 
vine,  and  the  mulberry  for  silk;  the  raising  of  cattle ;  to  search 
for  precious  metals ;  to  cultivate  a  traffic  with  the  Indians,  and 
especially  to  be  careful  to  undersell  the  English  and  Dutch. 
The  Lutheran  religion  was  enjoined  to  be  observed.  The  good 
will  of  the  Dutch  and  the  Indians  was  to  be  conciliated,  the 
purchases  of  land  from  the  latter  to  be  confirmed,  and  they 
to  be  instructed  in  a  civilized  and  Christian  life. 

Under  these  wholesome  instructions,  the  colony  prospered, 
the  treaty  of  peace  with  the  Indians  was  observed,  and  the 
settlers  were  consequently  not  molested.  Fort  Nassau,  oppo 
site  Tinicum,  the  chief  station  of  the  Dutch  on  the  Delaware, 
being  poorly  supplied  with  goods,  the  larger  share  of  trade 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Swedes,  who  shortly  constructed  a 
fort  lower  down  the  river,  at  the  mouth  of  Salem  creek,  which 
they  called  Fort  Elsenberg. 


WILLIAM   KIEFT;    WARS   WITH   THE  INDIANS. 

The  new  director  had  not  found  either  the  property  or  the 
prospects  of  the  company  by  any  means  in  an  encouraging 
state ;  their  fine  boweries  or  farms  on  Manhattan  island  being 
untenanted  or  neglected,  and  the  fur  trade  very  much  en 
grossed  by  unprincipled  traders.  It  was  clearly  necessary  for 
the  West  India  Company,  if  they  wished  the  colony  to  grow 
in  size  like  the  neighboring  province  of  New  England,  to 
offer  more  liberal  inducements  to  actual  settlers. 

They  prudently  got  rid  of  two  of  the  three  largest  patroon- 
ships,  those  of  Swansdale  and  Pavonia,  and,  for  the  future, 
limited  the  size  of  such  estates  to  four  miles  of  river  frontage. 
The  company  offered  to  provide  houses,  lands,  cattle  and  tools 
to  immigrants,  upon  receipt  of  an  annual  rent,  and  to  transport 


1 64 1  ]  SE  TTL  EMENT  OF  BR  O  OKL  YN.  127 

them  to  the  colony  free  of  cost.  The  prohibition  against 
making  woven  goods  was  repealed,  while  in  place  of  the  In 
dian-trade  monopoly,  a  duty  was  laid  on  articles  exported. 
The  established  religion  was  declared  to  be  that  of  the  Dutch 
Reformed  Church. 

It  would  have  been  desirable  had  the  large  manor  of  Rensselaers- 
wick  also  been  purchased,  as  Swansdale  and  Pavonia  had  been. 
Its  patroon  caused  a  fort  to  be  built  on  a  precipitous  islet  in  the 
Hudson,  near  the  southern  boundary  of  his  grant,  and  obliged  all 
vessels  going  up  to  Fort  Orange  to  lower  their  colors  and  to  pay 
toll  to  the  watch-master.  He  in  fact  aspired  to  be  independent  of 
the  jurisdiction  of  New  Amsterdam,  to  have  control  of  his  own  trade, 
and  would  grant  no  land  to  settlers  unless  they  renounced  any  right 
of  appeal  to  the  company's  government. 

The  new  regulations  for  the  colony  resulted  in  a  steady 
increase  of  population;  some  from  Holland,  some  from  Vir 
ginia,  who  came  to  cultivate  tobacco  (in  high  demand  by 
the  Dutch),  and  others  from  New  England,  driven  there 
from  by  the  religious  intolerance  of  the  Puritans.  On 
Long  Island,  all  the  western  portion  of  which  had  been  pur 
chased  from  the  Indians,  the  new  settlement  of  Breukelen  or 
BROOKLYN,  in  addition  to  Wallabout  and  Flatlands,  was  com 
menced.  But  the  eastern  portion  of  the  island,  which  was 
claimed  as  the  property  of  Lord  Stirling,  was  taken  up  by 
English  settlers,  who  placed  themselves  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  Connecticut. 

On  the  Connecticut  river,  the  House  of  Good  Hope  was 
soon  surrounded  by  the  English  settlers  at  Hartford,  who 
confined  the  Dutch  traders  to  a  plot  of  thirty  acres.  Besides 
that,  though  the  Dutch,  by  purchasing  of  the  Indians  the  land 
along  the  sound,  had  hoped  to  stop  the  encroachments  of  the 
English,  the  settlements  of  the  latter  rapidly  multiplied  west 
ward,  to  and  beyond  the  Housatonic.  The  hamlet  of  New 
Haven  or  Red  Hill  was  growing  apace,  and  at  Fairfield, 


128  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1643 

Stamford  and  Greenwich,  the  first  houses  of  those  harbor- 
towns  began  to  be  erected. 

Although  thirty  years  had  elapsed  since  the  founding  of  the 
colony,  as  yet  no  serious  difficulty  had  occurred  with  the  In 
dians.  Fire-arms  were  not  allowed  to  be  sold  to  the  tribes 
around  New  Amsterdam,  notwithstanding  the  Mohawks  had 
obtained  them  freely  from  the  colonists  about  Fort  Orange, 
as  already  stated.  The  circumstances  which  led  to  a  disturb 
ance  of  the  peace  were  of  a  trifling  sort  to  have  proved  the 
occasion  of  shedding  blood. 

The  RARITAN  tribe,  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hudson,  were 
accused  of  trying  to  rob  a  Dutch  vessel,  and  were  likewise 
suspected- of  stealing  swine  from  Staten  Island.  This  suspi 
cion  appears  to  have  been  unconfirmed ;  yet  on  these  slight 
grounds  an  expedition  was  sent  against  them  (1641),  and 
several  of  their  warriors  brutally  shot.  The  Raritans  retali 
ated  by  burning  some  buildings  on  Staten  Island,  and  by  kill 
ing  several  servants  belonging  on  one  of  the  boweries.  For 
this,  a  price  was  set  upon  their  heads,  and  Director  Kieft  per 
suaded  some  neighboring  tribes  to  assist  him  in  the  work  of 
chastisement. 

Two  years  later,  in  1643,  another  difficulty,  much  more 
sanguinary  in  its  results,  arose  with  the  HACKENSACKS,  who 
also  dwelt  on  the  west  side  of  the  river.  One  of  this  tribe 
having  been  made  drunk,  and  then  robbed  by  some  colonists, 
in  revenge  killed  two  of  the  Dutch.  The  chiefs  remonstrated 
against  the  sale  of  brandy  to  their  people,  but  nevertheless 
offered  to  make  reparation.  Kieft,  however,  who  would  listen 
to  no  apology,  was  only  to  be  satisfied  with  blood.  In  the 
meantime  the  Hackensacks  were  joined  by  another  tribe  about 
Tappan,  who  had  also  incurred  the  enmity  of  the  Dutch,  by 
retaliating  the  murder  of  a  warrior.  Against  these  offenders 
two  companies  were  sent  out,  one  of  them  being  commanded 
by  a  colonist  named  Adriaensen,  who  had  been  a  freebooter 


1643]  KIEFT'S  INDIAN   WARS.  129 

in  the  West  Indies.  The  Indians,  surprised  in  the  night, 
offered  but  little  resistance  to  their  assailants ;  and  warriors, 
women  and  children  were  slain  without  mercy.  Their 
shrieks,  borne  by  the  wintry  wind  across  the  frozen  waterSj 
were  distinctly  heard  on  the  Manhattan  shore.  The  wounded 
who  remained  next  morning,  were  either  slain  or  thrown  into 
the  icy  river. 

The  history  of  the  Dutch  occupation  of  the  East  Indies,  is  a  sor 
rowful  record  of  baseness,  duplicity  and  destruction  of  life.  An 
awful  transaction  (mentioned  by  Sir  Stamford  Raffles)  was  the 
drowning  of  a  ship-load  of  Chinese  traders  of  Java,  who,  having 
yielded  to  the  Dutch,  were  given  a  promise  to  be  eafely  conveyed 
from  the  country;  but,  when  out  at  sea,  they  were  every  one  thrown 
overboard.  The  rich  cargoes  of  pearls  and  perfumes,  of  spices  and 
other  delectable  luxuries  which  India  then  contributed  to  the  West, 
were  only  purchased  at  a  fearful  price. 

The  animosity  against  the  natives  next  extended  to  Long 
Island,  where  some  settlers  plundered  the  corn  of  the  neigh 
boring  Indians  and  slew  two  of  their  warriors.  Apprehending 
a  war  of  extermination,  and  roused  to  fury  by  the  ferocity  of 
their  punishment,  several  small  tribes  of  the  Indians  banded 
together,  and  began  a  series  of  reprisals  against  the  colonists 
near  to  New  Amsterdam,  burning,  slaying,  and  taking  pris 
oners.  All  who  could  escape  fled  to  the  town,  where  pres 
ently  a  fast  was  proclaimed  and  measures  concerted  to  attack 
the  Indians.  The  adventurer,  Adriaensen,  was  sent  out  with 
a  company,  but  the  expedition  was  unsuccessful.  He  beheld 
his  own  bowery  ruined,  and  he  himself  was  sent  a  prisoner  to 
Holland  for  making  a  passionate  attack,  with  pistol  and  cut 
lass,  upon  the  person  of  Director  Kieft. 

The  tribes  were  willing  to  listen  to  terms  of  pacification, 

but,  unhappily,  a  fresh  hindrance  arose,  caused  by  the  attack 

of  some  up-river  Indians   upon  a  trading  canoe  from   Fort 

Orange.     Hostilities  were  thereupon  at  once  renewed,  and 

F* 


130  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1645 

expeditions  sent  to  both  sides  of  the  Hudson  and  to  Long 
Island.  Especially  active  as  a  leader  in  these  bloody  enter 
prises,  was  Captain  Underbill,  who  had  been  one  of  the  so- 
called  "heroes"  of  the  Pequod  war  in  New  England,  an 
account  of  which  will  be  given  in  the  succeeding  chapter.  In 
an  attack  against  the  Long  Island  Indians,  one  hundred  of 
the  natives  were  slain,  while  two  of  the  survivors,  who,  as 
prisoners,  had  been  taken  to  New  Amsterdam,  were  hacked 
to  pieces  with  knives.  On  a  moonlight  night  in  midwinter, 
an  attack  was  made  upon  an  Indian  village  on  the  Connecti 
cut  frontier,  many  of  the  natives  being  assembled  to  celebrate 
a  festival.  At  the  onset,  a  large  number  of  the  Indians  were 
slain,  their  village  was  then  set  on  fire,  and  a  horrible  mas 
sacre  ensued.  It  was  reported  that  500  fell  in  the  carnage 
and  by  the  flames. 

The  Mohawks  had  not  been  engaged  in  the  contest,  which 
had  been  carried  on  by  tribes  south  of  their  territory.  It  was 
at  this  time  that  the  missionary  Jogues,  a  prisoner  of  the  Mo 
hawks,  came  down  to  Fort  Orange  with  some  of  that  band, 
and  escaped  out  of  their  hands.  In  the  same  summer  of  1645, 
Kieft,  having  paid  a  visit  to  the  fort,  and  effected  a  treaty 
with  the  Mohawks,  the  latter  by  their  influence  persuaded  the 
hostile  tribes  to  agree  to  a  definitive  peace.  It  was  stipulated 
that,  in  future,  if  difficulties  should  arise,  conciliation  should 
be  first  resorted  to ;  and  furthermore,  that  when  the  Indians 
approached  Manhattan,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  when  the 
Dutch  went  to  the  Indian  villages,  their  fire-arms  should  not 
be  carried  with  them. 

The  colonists  had  paid  dearly  for  their  foolishness  in  per 
mitting  this  war.  Only  five  or  six  out  of  the  thirty  boweries 
remained  in  a  tenantable  condition,  and  the  prospects  of  the 
province  had  been  seriously  damaged.  Consequently,  the 
people  now  clamored  for  the  removal  of  the  unpopular  magis 
trate,  against  whom  they  made  the  further  grave  charge  of 


1 647]  PETER  STUYVESANT.  131 

denying  their  right  of  appeal  from  his  decisions  to  the  authori 
ties  in  Holland,  just  as  the  patroon  Van  Rensselaer  had  denied 
a  similar  right  to  the  settlers  on  his  land.  A  merchant  in 
New  Amsterdam  had  been  not  only  fined,  but  placed  in  jail 
for  his  presumption  in  claiming  to  appeal ;  while  an  Anabap 
tist  minister  on  Long  Island  had,  for  a  like  offence,  been 
similarly  maltreated.  These  loud  complaints  resulted  in  the 
recall  of  Kieft  in  the  year  1647,  after  he  had  been  the  com 
pany's  director  for  nine  years.  Kieft  sailed  for  home  in  a 
vessel  richly  laden  with  furs,  but  it  was  cast  ashore  on  the 
coast  of  Wales,  and  he  and  eighty  others  perished. 


PETER   STUYVESANT;    NEW   NETHERLAND    RESIGNED   TO  THE 
ENGLISH. 

When  Peter  Stuyvesant,  who  had  been  governor  of  several 
small  islands  in  the  Caribbean  sea  belonging  to  Holland,  be 
came  director  of  New  Netherland  (1647),  that  province,  even 
including  the  Delaware  settlement  of  the  Swedes,  contained 
less  than  3000  settlers ;  while  the  English  colonies  of  New 
England  on  the  north-east,  numbered  nearly  20,000,  and  Vir 
ginia  and  Maryland  together,  on  the  south,  were  equally 
populous.  On  Long  Island,  the  English  were  encroaching 
toward  the  western  end,  and  in  the  New  Haven  territory,  the 
movement  in  the  same  direction  still  continued. 

Stuyvesant  having  been  particularly  charged  to  adjust  the 
controversy  with  the  United  Colonies  of  New  England,  pro 
ceeded  to  the  House  of  Good  Hope,  where  it  was  agreed 
that  the  boundary  matter  and  the  disputes  arising  from  the 
question  of  jurisdiction,  should  be  referred  to  four  English 
arbitrators,  two  of  them  to  be  chosen  by  Stuyvesant.  In 
accordance  with  this  sensible  arrangement,  the  eastern  two- 
thirds  part  of  Long  Island  (the  present  county  of  Suffolk)  was 
awarded  to  the  English;  the  Dutch  were  to  retain  their  trading- 


132  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1655 

post  on  the  Connecticut ;  but  the  line  of  boundary  between 
the  Dutch  and  English  possessions,  which  it  was  agreed  should 
run  northward  from  Greenwich  bay,  was  nowhere  to  approach 
within  ten  miles  of  the  Hudson  river. 

Some  of  the  New  Haven  people,  unduly  elated  at  the 
favorable  issue  of  the  negotiations,  sailed  for  Delaware  bay, 
with  the  intention  of  planting  a  colony  there  ;  but  having 
stopped  on  the  way  at  Manhattan,  Stuyvesant  seized  the 
vessel,  and,  while  preventing  their  undertaking  being  carried 
out,  he  himself  caused  a  fort  to  be  erected  (1651)  at  the  same 
place  which  they  had  designed  for  their  colony.  It  was  on 
the  site  of  the  present  town  of  New  Castle,  five  miles  below 
the  Swedish  fort  Christina,  and  was  called  Fort  Casimir. 

Printz,  in  the  meantime,  had  been  succeeded  as  governor 
of  New  Sweden,  by  RISINGH,  who  managed  by  an  artifice  to 
make  himself  master  of  the  new  Dutch  fort.  Whereupon 
Stuyvesant,  in  1655,  sent  a  strong  force  to  the  Delaware, 
which  not  only  reclaimed  Fort  Casimir,  but  took  possession 
of  Fort  Christina  and  the  rest  of  the  military  posts  of  New 
Sweden.  The  West  India  Company  soon  afterward  sold  the 
west  bank  of  the  Delaware,  from  Cape  Henlopen  to  the  falls 
at  Trenton,  to  the  city  of  Amsterdam,  though  Lord  Baltimore 
laid  claim  to  it  as  part  of  his  province  of  Maryland. 

The  tobacco  exported  from  Virginia  was  at  that  time  mostly 
carried  in  Dutch  vessels,  while,  as  already  related,  negro  slaves 
found  their  unwilling  way  into  the  Old  Dominion  by  the  same 
channel.  Some  of  these  Africans  were  also  conveyed  to  New 
Netherland  by  vessels  of  the  West  India  Company  —  that 
corporation  being  a  large  dealer  in  slaves.  Many  of  these 
creatures,  unfortunate  captives  from  the  Guinea  coast,  were 
brought  to  Manhattan  while  Stuyvesant  was  governor,  he 
being  directed  to  use  diligence  in  attending  -to  the  public 
sale  of  these  living  consignments.  Although  the  slaves  were 
permitted  to  work  out  their  freedom,  yet  the  children  of 


1663]  PETER  STUYVESANT.  133 

such  did  not  partake  of  the  purchased  emancipation  of 
the  parents.  It  has  been  truthfully  observed  that  the  fact 
"  that  New  York  is  (was)  not  a  slave  state  like  Carolina,  is 
due  to  the  climate,  and  not  to  the  superior  humanity  of  its 
founders." 

The  predominating  trait  in  the  character  of  Stuyvesant  was 
pertinacity.  An  opinionated  man  is  very  apt  to  be  a  perse 
cutor,  and  such  the  director  would  doubtless  have  proved  ; 
but,  fortunately  for  the  province,  his  intolerance  was  held  in 
check  by  explicit  orders  from  the  company  that  individual 
rights  of  conscience  should  be  respected.  New  Amsterdam 
was  receiving  many  accessions  from  New  England ;  refugee 
Friends,  Anabaptists,  and  others,  to  whom  the  consciences 
of  the  Puritan  magistrates  were  so  much  opposed,  that  they 
could  not  endure  the  "schismatics"  in  their  sight. 

In  1663  threatening  complications  again  arose  with  New 
England.  The  province  of  Connecticut  had,  the  preceding 
year,  received  a  royal  charter  annexing  the  New  Haven  terri 
tory  to  its  jurisdiction ;  whereupon  claims  were  advanced  on 
behalf  of  the  English,  that  the  Hudson  river  should  thence 
forth  be  the  western  boundary  line,  and  that  all  Long  Island 
should  be  given  up  to  them.  Stuyvesant,  who  in  a  former 
emergency  had  refused  to  call  together  a  popular  assembly, 
was  now  willing  to  listen  to  the  voice  of  the  deputies  from 
the  settlements.  Their  decision  was,  that  an  appeal  should 
be  made  to  the  company  and  to  the  home  government  for 
protection.  But  measures  were  already  being  taken  in  Eng 
land  to  secure  possession  of  the  Dutch  province. 

It  has  been  mentioned  that  Long  Island  was  claimed  as  the 
property  of  Lord  Stirling.  This  and  other  claims  to  adjacent 
country,  including  New  Netherland,  having  been  purchased 
by  the  Duke  of  York,  the  brother  of  King  Charles  II.,  his 
title  was  duly  confirmed,  and  the  territory  received  the  name 
of  NEW  YORK.  Three  ships,  carrying  600  men,  were  at  once 


134  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1664 

despatched  to  take  possession  of  New  Netherland  on  behalf 
of  the  duke.  The  commissioners  appointed  were  Sir  Robert 
Carr,  Colonel  Robert  Nichols,  and  Sir  George  Cartwright. 
Governor  Winthrop,  of  Connecticut,  joined  the  expedition. 
Although,  upon  its  arrival  before  New  Amsterdam,  the  per 
tinacious  governor  was  unwilling  to  give  up  the  place  without 
any  show  of  resistance,  the  prudent  counsels  of  the  burgomas 
ters  and  the  mediation  of  Winthrop,  resulted  in  an  equable 
capitulation,  by  which  the  personal  rights  of  the  citizens  were 
amply  guaranteed. 

After  the  surrender,  while  Nichols  remained  in  the  town, 
Carr,  another  of  the  commissioners,  proceeded  in  one  of  the 
ships  to  take  possession  of  the  Delaware  settlements,  while 
Cartwright  sailed  up  the  Hudson  to  apprise  the  settlers  of 
Rensselaerswick  of  the  change  of  masters,  and  to  raise  the 
English  flag  on  Fort  Orange.  The  village  near  the  fort  was 
thereafter  called  ALBANY,  that  being  one  of  the  titles  of  the 
Duke  of  York.  It  was  in  1664  that  New  Netherland  was 
thus  speedily  brought  under  English  control. 


CHAPTER    XL 

THE   NEW   ENGLAND   COLONIES. 

1614 — 1660. 


THE   PILGRIM    FATHERS:    NEW    PLYMOUTH. 

IN  the  same  year  that  Jamestown  was  founded  by  the  Vir 
ginia  Company,  the  Plymouth,  or  North  Virginia  Company, 
sent  out  a  colony  to  make  a  settlement  within  their  own  grant 
of  territory.  They  landed  near  the  mouth  of  the  Sagadahoc 
or  Kennebec ;  but  the  winter  having  proved  very  severe,  and 
the  colonists  becoming  discouraged,  they  all  re-embarked  the 
following  year  for  England.  In  1614,  Captain  John  Smith 
was  sent  out  by  some  London  merchants,  and  besides  making 
a  map  of  the  coast,  brought  back  a  profitable  cargo  to  his 
employers.  He  presented  the  map  to  Prince  Charles;  and 
the  name  of  the  territory,  which  he  had  changed  from  North 
Virginia  to  NEW  ENGLAND,  was  confirmed  by  the  prince. 

After  two  years'  delay,  and  much  opposition,  a  charter  was 
finally  obtained  from  King  James.  This  "  Great  Patent,"  as 
it  was  called,  was  granteJ  in  1620  to  forty  individuals  of 
wealth  and  high  rank,  styled  "  The  Council  established  at 
Plymouth,  in  the  county  of  Devon,  for  the  planting,  ruling, 
ordering  and  governing  of  New  England,  in  America."  It 
conferred  upon  them  the  exclusive  rights  of  government  and 
of  trade  in  all  that  part  of  the  American  territory  comprised 
between  the  4oth  and  48th  parallels  of  north  latitude,  and 
extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean  :  including, 


136  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1620 

therefore,  the  present  Canada,  New  England  and  most  part 
of  the  Middle  States,  besides  the  great  belt  of  unexplored 
region  west  of  the  same.  But,  late  in  the  same  year  that  the 
charter  was  obtained,  and  before  the  Council  of  Plymouth 
had  yet  equipped  an  expedition,  a  company  of  pilgrims, 
seeking  for  homes,  had  landed  and  established  themselves  on 
the  shores  of  the  province. 

This  company  was  part  of  a  body  of  Separatists,  who,  be 
cause  of  their  non-conformity  with  the  religious  views  and 
outward  services  of  the  Established  Church  of  England,  and 
in  order  to  escape  the  persecution  incurred  by  this  dissent, 
had  fled  to  Holland,  and,  in  the  city  of  Leyden,  formed  a 
congregation  of  their  own.  John  Robinson,  a  leading  man 
and  excellent  minister  among  them,  is  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  the  denomination  of  Independents  or  Congregationalists. 
Finding  that  the  manners  and  practices  of  the  Dutch  were 
quite  at  variance  with  their  own,  and  that  there  was  danger 
of  the  church  suffering  moral  loss  thereby,  they  had  made  ap 
plication  to  the  Virginia  Company  for  permission  to  seek  an 
asylum  in  its  dominions.  Their  wish  was  finally  granted,  and 
to  the  number  of  102  persons — men,  women  and  children — 
they  set  sail  from  Plymouth,  in  the  ship  Mayflower,  for  the 
mouth  of  the  Hudson  river;  but  they  had  a  long  and  boisterous 
voyage,  and  being  carried  to  the  northward  of  their  reckon 
ing,  they  found  themselves,  when  land  was  discovered,  oppo 
site  Cape  Cod. 

When  it  became  thus  apparent  that  they  were  outside  the 
limits  of  the  Virginia  Company's  territory,  they  made  a 
solemn  voluntary  agreement,  before  landing,  to  enter  into  a 
compact  of  government,  to  frame  just  and  equal  laws,  and 
mutually  to  submit  to  obey  the  same.  They  also  chose  JOHN 
CARVER  to  be  their  governor  for  one  year.  A  boat's  company 
was  then  sent  out  to  explore  for  a  safe  harbor.  At  one  place 
where  they  landed,  a  few  Indians  discharged  arrows  at  them 


1 620]  NEW  PLYMOUTH.  137 

from  a  distance;  their  distrust  being  due  to  the  fact  that 
several  years  before,  over  twenty  of  their  companions  had 
been  kidnapped  by  a  ship's  crew  (Captain  Hunt's)  and  car 
ried  off  to  be  sold  as  slaves. 

Having  cruised  around  Cape  Cod  bay,  the  explorers  found 
on  its  west  side  a  harbor  which  pleased  them ;  and  here  the 
Pilgrims  landed  the  22d  of  ti^-t^tli-fiftOfl-thXJ^^ccuiber^  1620. 
"  Welcome,  Englishmen,"  were  the  first  words  which  greeted 
the  settlers,  from  the  lips  of  a  native.  It  was  the  sagamore 
Samoset,  who  came  to  them  alone,  with  assurances  of  friend 
ship.  Here,  too,  lived  Tasquantum  or  Squanto,  one  of  those 
who  had  been  carried  away  by  Hunt.  His  name  often  occurs 
in  the  early  annals  of  the  colony.  The  town  which  the  set 
tlers  began  to  build  was  called  NEW  PLYMOUTH,  after  the  Eng 
lish  city  whence  they  had  sailed. 

Unlike  most  of  the  colonists  who  had  previously  essayed  to 
settle  in  the  New  World,  these  dissenters  were  a  unit  in  their 
purpose  to  establish  homes ;  and  it  was  the  easier  to  effect  this 
object,  seeing  that  they  were  not  swayed  by  the  mere  avarice 
or  caprice  of  the  gold-hunters  and  fur-traders,  but  were  honest 
and  frugal  tillers  of  the  soil,  and  were  generally  concerned  to 
observe  the  Divine  requirements  according  as  they  understood 
them.  It  was  this  affinity  of  moral  purpose  which  supported 
them  in  the  midst  of  the  severe  sufferings  of  the  first  winter — 
,the  extreme  cold  and  prevalent  sickness,  the  lack  of  sufficient 
food  and  of  comfortable  habitations.  In  three  months  about 
one-half  of  their  number  died,  among  whom  was  Carver,  the 
governor.  WILLIAM  BRADFORD  was  appointed  to  succeed 
him. 

Fortunately,  the  friendship  of  the  Indians  was  early  secured. 
A  -fatal  distemper  had  recently  prevailed  among  the  tribes 
along  the  New  England  coast,  by  which  great  numbers  of 
them  had  perished,  leaving  the  survivors  in  a  very  impover 
ished  condition.  A  treaty  was  entered  into  with  MASSASOIT, 

12* 


138  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1620 

chief  of  the  Wampanoags  (their  neighbors  on  the  west)  which 
was  strictly  observed  for  nearly  forty  years;  yet  this  is  not  to 
be  wondered  at,  as  it  was  a  mutually  protective  alliance,  by 
which  the  colonists  were  to  receive  assistance,  if  attacked, 
and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  render  it,  if  the  Wampanoags  were 
assailed  unjustly.  MILES  STANDISH  was  appointed  captain  of 
the  militia. 

In  the  third  year  after  the  landing,  Standish  went  in  pursuit 
of  some  Indians  who  had  manifested  hostile  intentions,  to 
which  they  had  been  provoked  by  the  ill-behavior  of  some 
colonists,  not  Puritans.  A  number  of  the  Indians  were  killed ; 
which,  being  reported  to  the  tender-spirited  Robinson,  who 
yet  remained  in  Holland,  he  wrote  to  the  colonists — "Oh, 
how  happy  a  thing  it  would  have  been,  that  you  had  converted 
some  before  you  killed  any. "  This  rigorous  proceeding  on  the 
part  of  the  colonists  filled  the  neighboring  Indians  with  such 
terror,  that  many  left  their  habitations  and  hid  in  swamps  and 
unhealthy  places,  neglecting  their  planting,  so  that  numbers 
perished  of  want  and  disease.  One  of  these  unfortunates 
was  the  sachem  Aspinet.  Nor  did  they  recover  from  the 
effects  of  this  blow  for  a  period  of  fifty  years,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  began  the  war  with  the  Wampanoags,  called 
< 'King  Philip's  War." 

On  one  occasion,  Standish's  company  was  despatched  for  a  quan 
tity  of  corn  which  some  of  the  settlers  had  purchased  of  the  In 
dians,  but  which,  on  account  of  a  violent  storm,  they  had  been 
unable  to  bring  with  them.  They  had  left  it,  covered  with  mats 
and  sedge,  in  charge  of  the  sachem  Aspinet.  The  Indians  faith 
fully  attended  to  the  trust,  and  delivered  the  corn  to  Standish  when 
he  came  ;  but  the  latter,  having  missed  a  few  beads  and  some  other 
trifles  from  a  boat  which  had  been  left  unguarded,  threatened  the 
natives  that  if  they  were  not  returned  "he  would  revenge  it  on 
them  before  his  departure."  Aspinet  recovered  the  trinkets,  and 
returned  them  to  the  English  commander. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  winter,  a  vessel  arrived 


1 630]  MASS  A  CHUSE  TTS  JBA  Y  COL  ONY.  1 39 

from  England  with  additional  colonists,  and  a  charter  from 
the  Council  of  Plymouth.  The  document  they  were  of  course 
glad  to  obtain  as  legalizing  their  undertaking,  yet  for  the 
present  they  would  have  much  preferred  that  the  vessel  had 
brought  them  a  cargo  of  food,  as  they  were  now  obliged  to 
subsist  for  several  months  on  half  allowance.  WINSLOW,  one 
of  the  leading  colonists,  was  sent  to  Monhegan  island,  a  fish 
ing  station  near  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec,  and  from  thence 
obtained  the  necessary  relief.  Four  or  five  years  elapsed  be 
fore  they  had  broken  up  and  cultivated  sufficient  land  to 
overcome  the  demand  for  food ;  but  the  soil  in  the  vicinity 
was  not  fertile,  and  the  population  consequently  increased 
but  slowly. 

THE   PURITANS   OF   MASSACHUSETTS   BAY. 

In  1628  a  new  colony,  with  a  separate  charter,  arose  on  the 
north  of  the  New  Plymouth  tract,  and  in  size  soon  overshad 
owed  the  original  settlement.  It  was  known  as  the  "  Planta 
tion  of  Massachusetts  Bay."  The  first  body  of  colonists 
under  this  grant  were  led  by  JOHN  ENDICOTT,  and  they  set 
tled  at  Naumkeag,  now  Salem,  where  there  were  already  a 
few  families.  These  new-comers  were  of  that  reformed  di 
vision  of  the  State-religionists  called  Puritans,  who,  while 
objecting  to  the  liturgy  and  many  of  the  popish  practices 
still  retained  by  the  national  church,  had  not,  like  the  Pil 
grims  of  Plymouth,  really  withdrawn  from  it. 

Although  Endicott  was  appointed  governor,  and  was  to  be 
assisted  in  the  execution  of  the  laws  by  twelve  counsellors, 
the  company  in  England  had  also  a  governor,  a  deputy,  and 
assistants,  and  monthly  courts  were  held  for  the  management 
of  its  affairs.  Two  years  later  they  appointed  JOHN  WIN- 
THROP  governor,  an  honor  to  which  he  was  frequently  re- 
elected.  In  the  same  year  (1630)  seventeen  vessels  conveyed 


1 40  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1635 

to  the  settlement  about  a  thousand  emigrants,  besides  horses, 
cattle,  and  various  supplies,  and  the  requisite  implements  for 
fishing,  cultivating  the  soil,  and  ship-building. 

Winthrop  fixed  upon  the  little  peninsula  at  the  head  of 
Massachusetts  bay,  for  the  seat  of  government.  There  was  a 
hill  upon  it,  having  three  distinct  eminences,  and  hence  the 
peninsula  was  called  Tri-mountain  ;  but  it  soon  received  the 
name  of  BOSTON,  after  the  English  town  whence  some  of  the 
principal  emigrants  came.  Charlestown,  Boston's  northern 
suburb,  had  been  settled  the  year  before.  Roxbury,  on  the 
south;  Cambridge,  on  the  west;  Lynn,  Watertown,  Maiden, 
etc.,  were  among  the  places  immediately  founded.  A  general 
court,  the  first  in  America,  was  held  in  the  autumn  of  this 
year.  It  was  decided,  after  more  than  100  freemen  had 
been  appointed,  that  these  should  have  power  to  choose  the 
assistants  or  magistrates,  while  the  magistrates  should  elect 
the  governor  and  deputy-governor  out  of  their  own  body ; 
but  it  was  afterward  agreed  that  deputies  chosen  by  the  towns 
should  also  convene  with  the  magistrates.  It  was  early  the 
desire  of  the  people  to  have  home  rule.  Peace  prevailed  with 
the  Indians :  the  Mohegans,  Pequods,  and  Narragansetts,  all 
solicited  their  powerful  alliance. 

Under  the  judicious  administration  of  Winthrop,  the 
.colony  prospered  and  new  settlers  constantly  arrived  from 
England,  where  there  prevailed  a  general  apprehension  of 
civil  and  religious  trouble.  A  body  of  these  colonists,  in  the 
autumn  of  1635,  began  the  settlement  of  Concord.  They 
encountered  many  privations ;  their  cattle  sickened,  the 
wolves  devoured  their  swine  and  sheep,  their  poorly-con 
structed  huts  were  not  proof  against  rain  and  the  cold;  yet 
the  pioneers  were  of  a  devout  and  patient  spirit,  and,  though 
esteeming  themselves  amongst  the  poorest  of  God's  creatures, 
they  maintained  a  cheerful  state  of  mind,  and  a  resolution 
"to  excel  in  holiness." 


1 62 1]  NEW  HAMPSHIRE  AND  MAINE.  141 

In  the  following  year  (1636),  the  young  and  talented 
HENRY  VANE  arrived  in  the  colony,  and  at  once  the  electors, 
pleased  that  a  man  of  such  note  should  make  his  home  among 
them,  chose  him  for  governor.  But  the  short  administration 
of  Vane  was  marked  by  very  serious  troubles, — a  war  with  the 
Pequods,  and  a  sharp  religious  controversy.  The  Indian  war 
will  be  mentioned  hereafter  in  connection  with  the  Connecti 
cut  and  Rhode  Island  settlements. 

The  controversy  referred  to,  arose  out  of  what  was  called 
the  "  Antinomian  heresy,"  of  which  Anne  Hutchinson  was 
the  chief  promulgator.  She  controverted  the  austerity  of  the 
Puritans,  as  partaking  of  unnecessary  "good  works,"  and  in 
sisted  on  the  sufficiency  of  justification  by  faith  alone,  as 
revealed  by  the  indwelling  spirit.  As  Vane  supported  these 
views,  at  the  election  in  1637  he  was  superseded  by  Winthrop, 
and  soon  thereafter  returned  to  England,  to  become  a  leader 
of  the  Independents.  Anne  Hutchinson,  having  been  ban 
ished  from  the  colony,  went  first  to  Rhode  Island,  and  then 
to  New  Netherland ;  but  in  the  Indian  war  brought  on  by 
Kieft's  misgovernment,  she,  her  son-in-law,  and  all  (except 
one)  of  their  family,  to  the  number  of  eighteen  persons,  per 
ished  at  the  hands  of  the  incensed  red  men. 


-TN  NEW   HAMPSHIRE  AND   MAINE. 

Probably  the  most  active  and  zealous  member  of  the  origi 
nal  Plymouth  Company,  and  of  its  successor,  the  Council  of 
Plymouth,  in  England,  and  one  whose  interest  in  American 
affairs  continued  unabated  for  a  space  of  forty  years,  was  SIR 
FERDINANDO  GORGES.  Another  member  of  the  Council,  and 
for  awhile  its  secretary,  was  JOHN  MASON,  who,  within  a  few 
months  after  the  Great  Patent  was  obtained  from  the  king 
(1621),  received  from  the  Council  a  grant  of  that  part  of  their 
territory  contained  between  the  Salem  river  and  the  head- 


142  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1636 

waters  of  the  Merrimac;  while  Mason  and  Gorges  together, 
were  allowed  a  second  patent  for  the  adjacent  tract  to  the 
east,  comprised  between  the  Merrimac  and  the  Kennebec. 

The  two  proprietors  named,  had  great  anticipations  as  to 
the  success  of  their  projected  colony,  and  in  1623,  the  settle 
ments  of  Dover  and  Portsmouth  on  the  Piscataqua  river,  were 
founded  by  colonists  whom  they  sent  out.  But  the  benefit 
of  their  liberal  expenditures  was  reaped  by  others  at  a  later 
day.  When,  in  1628,  the  grant  to  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Com 
pany  was  made  by  the  Council,  the  territory  which  was  then 
conveyed,  overlapped  that  to  Mason,  who  therefore' asked  for 
a  new  patent  to  that  part  of  the  land  between  the  Merrimac 
and  Piscataqua,  or  NEW  HAMPSHIRE,  relinquishing  the  Salem 
river  for  awhile  as  his  southern  boundary.  The  title  to  this 
latter  doubly-claimed  section,  became  the  occasion  of  many 
disputes  at  law  between  the  heirs  of  Mason  and  the  colony  of 
Massachusetts  Bay,  although  it  does  not  appear  that  the  primal 
right  of  the  natives  was  taken  into  consideration.  Very  slow 
was  the  growth  of  the  New  Hampshire  settlements ;  and  in 
1653,  thirty  years  after  Portsmouth  was  founded,  it  could 
boast  of  containing  no  more  than  fifty  or  sixty  families.  The 
settlements  were  annexed  to  Massachusetts  in  1641. 

As  Mason  had  taken  west  of  the  Piscataqua  for  his  share  of 
territory,  Gorges  took  that  east  of  the  same  to  the  Kennebec 
river.  The  eastern  section,  being  part  of  the  subsequent  state 
of  MAINE,  was  at  first  called  New  Somerset.  The  region  from 
the  Kennebec  east  to  the  St.  Croix  was  given  at  a  later  date 
to  the  Earl  of  Stirling.  Monhegan  island,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Kennebec,  and  a  settlement  at  Pemaquid  point,  were  at 
that  time  the  only  stations  on  the  Maine  coast.  After  these, 
Saco  was  settled,  and  a  court  held  there  in  1636 ;  then  York, 
which  was  first  called  Georgeana,  in  honor  of  the  proprietary. 
Upon  the  death  of  Gorges,  the  few  inhabitants  of  the  province 
were  left  to  take  care  of  themselves.  The  Massachusetts  Bay 


1631]  ROGER    WILLIAMS. 


colony  offered  its  protection,  and  at  the  sarrfe  time  clajfyfecL 
the  territory  as  being  really  theirs  under  the  Great  Charter.  /  J 
Godfrey,  the  governor  of  Maine,  an  Episcopalian — as  were 
also  most  of  the  settlers — strongly  remonstrated  against  the 
annexation  ;  but  it  was  accomplished  in  1653,  the  towns  very 
reluctantly  giving  in  their  adhesion. 

There  was  another  important  patent  granted  by  the  Council 
of  Plymouth,  at  the  request  of  that  persistent  colonizer  Sir 
Ferdinando  Gorges.  It  was  obtained  the  same  year  (1621) 
that  he  became  possessor  of  the  " Maine"  grant,  but  was 
made  out  in  the  name  of  Sir  William  Alexander,  afterward 
known  as  the  Earl  of  Stirling.  It  comprised  all  the  region 
east  of  the  St.  Croix  and  south  of  the  St.  Lawrence,  includ 
ing  Acadie  and  part  of  Canada, — all  of  it,  as  we  have  seen, 
claimed  by  the  French,  but  now  given  away  by  the  name  of  NOVA 
SCOTIA,  or  New  Scotland.  By  this  procedure,  it  was  designed 
to  induce  the  Scotch  to  settle  therein,  and  thus,  while  acting 
as  opponents  of  French  Catholic  colonization,  to  serve  as  a  pro 
tecting  bulwark  to  the  regular  English  settlements  in  the  rear. 

This  was  an  unjust  and  unfortunate  gift  of  property,  which 
belonged  neither  to  the  Council  nor  to  King  James  to  dispose 
of,  and  it  proved,  as  might  have  been  expected,  a  fertile  sub 
ject  of  contention.  Mention  has  been  made  in  the  ninth 
chapter,  how,  in  1628,  the  settlements  in  Acadie  and  Canada 
came  into  possession  of  the  English  in  a  time  of  war,  and 
how  they  were  shortly  given  back  again  into  the  hands  of  the 
French.  Had  the  line  of  separation  between  Maine  and 
Acadie  been  clearly  defined  upon  that  occasion,  a  great  deal 
of  the  subsequent  hostility  would  have  been  avoided. 

ROGER  WILLIAMS-THE   FOUNDER   OF  RHODE   ISLAND. 

In  1631.  there  arrived  at  Boston  a  fugitive  from  English 
persecution,  named  ROGER  WILLIAMS.  He  was  a  separatist 


144  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STA'lES.  [1636 

from  the  established  Episcopal  church,  and  yet  his  conscien 
tious  convictions  were  esteemed  heresy  in  Puritan  New  Eng 
land.  For,  while  he  believed  that  the  civil  magistrate  should 
restrain  and  punish  outward  crime,  so  he  held  that,  as  the 
conscience  must  never  be  coerced,  the  magistrate  grievously 
erred  when  he  attempted  to  set  bounds  to  the  soul's  inward 
freedom.  In  accordance  with  this  earnest  belief  in  the  sanctity 
of  the  conscience,  he  was  opposed  to  the  exaction  of  tithes 
for  the  support  of  a  special  religion,  as  well  as  to  any  fine  or 
punishment  by  men  for  non-conformity  or  non-attendance  on 
public  worship.  Now,  the  Puritans  were  strenuous  on  these 
points,  and  their  observance  was  especially  provided  for  in 
the  colonial  law ;  hence  the  separatist  soon  found  that  his  life 
in  the  colony  was  not  likely  to  be  one  of  outward  tranquillity. 

For  over  two  years,  Roger  Williams  was  a  minister  of  the 
congregations  in  Plymouth  and  Salem  —  principally  in  the 
latter  place — where  he  became  greatly  endeared  to  the  people. 
But  his  views  of  the  inherent  right  of  intellectual  liberty,  and 
of  the  separation  of  church  and  state  in  every  particular, 
finally  resulted  in  a  sentence  of  banishment  by  the  general 
court.  Rather  than  renounce  opinions  which  had  taken  such 
hold  of  his  mind  that  he  doubted  not  their  agreement  with 
the  Truth,  he  declared  himself  "ready  to  be  bound  and 
banished  and  even  to  die  in  New  England." 

In  midwinter,  the  early  part  of  1636,  Williams  departed 
from  Salem,  and  turning  his  steps'  southward  toward  the 
wilderness,  wandered  for  fourteen  weeks  alone,  in  storms  and 
the  bitter  cold,  often  sorely  pressed  for  food  and  for  a  shelter 
at  night.  But  the  Indians,  by  whom  he  was  known  and  grate 
fully  remembered  as  their  former  friend,  received  him  gladly; 
and  in  the  cabins  of  Massasoit,  chief  of  the  Wampanoags, 
and  of  the  Narragansett,  CANONICUS,  he  found  that  brotherly 
treatment  which  had  been  denied  him  by  his  own  country 
men.  Massasoit  granted  him  some  land,  at  Seekonk,  for  a 


1638]  RHODE   ISLAND.  145 

settlement,  but  finding  that  it  was  within  the  jurisdiction  of 
Plymouth,  and  hence  might  involve  him  in  future  trouble,  he 
crossed  the  Pawtucket  river,  and  at  the  head  of  Narragansett 
bay,  founded  PROVIDENCE,  which  he  thus  named  in  commemo 
ration  of  "God's  merciful  providence  to  him  in  his  distress." 
From  Canonicus  and  his  nephew  MIANTONOMAH,  of  the  Nar- 
ragansetts,  he  obtained  a  clear  title  to  the  land. 

The  great  trust  which  Williams  felt  had  been  confided  to 
him  by  the  Ruler  of  all  things,  was  wisely  administered.  The 
liberality  with  which  he  granted  the  land  to  the  needy,  with 
no  thought  of  personal  aggrandizement,  or  emolument  for 
himself,  was  singularly  unselfish.  With  respect  to  the  govern 
ment  of  the  little  state,  he  conferred  the  authority  more  com 
pletely  upon  the  people  themselves  than  had  yet  been  realized 
in  any  other  colony.  Harshly. as  he  had  been  treated  by  some 
of  the  Puritans,  and  severe  as  had  been  the  winter's  experi 
ence  which  resulted  from  the  sentence  of  exile,  yet  he  bore 
no  resentment  to  his  persecutors,  to  whom,  as  we  shall  pres 
ently  see,  he  was  enabled  to  render  efficient  service. 

Two  years  after  the  arrival  of  Williams  (1638),  a  number 
of  the  Antinomian  friends  of  Anne  Hutchinson,  having  de 
parted  from  Massachusetts  with  the  design  of  forming  a  sepa 
rate  colony  of  their  own,  were  welcomed  to  the  new  settlement 
on  Narragansett  bay.  The  little  flock  of  emigrants  was  led 
by  JOHN  CLARKE  and  WILLIAM  CODDINGTON;  the  latter  a 
merchant  from  Boston,  in  Lincolnshire,  and  an  associate  of  the 
Plymouth  Company.  Upon  the  recommendation  of  Williams, 
they  purchased  from  the  Narragansetts  the  island  of  Aquid- 
neck,  afterward  called  Isle  of  Rhodes,  but  shortly  altered  to 
RHODE  ISLAND.  The  price  paid  for  the  land  was  forty 
fathoms  of  white  wampum ;  and  as  an  additional  consideration 
for  the  Indians  to  remove  and  leave  the  whites  the  sole  occu 
pants,  they  were  presented  with  twenty  hoes  and  ten  coats. 
The  colonists  bound  themselves  that  in  civil  affairs  only,  was 
G  13 


146  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1635 

the  majority  to  rule :  in  matters  of  doctrine,  while  they  pro 
fessed  obedience  to  the  "perfect  laws  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,"  yet  their  consciences  must  be  left  untrammelled  by 
the  State.  They  set  love  and  benevolence  before  them  as 
their  rule. 


THE   CONNECTICUT   AND    NEW    HAVEN   SETTLEMENTS. 

In  the  account  of  the  province  of  New  Netherland,  we  have 
learnt  how  the  Dutch,  who  claimed  the  country  north  of  Long 
Island  Sound,  had  established  a  fortified  trading-post  on  the 
Connecticut,  which  they  called  the  House  of  Good  Hope. 
But  this  territory  was  likewise  claimed  by  the  great  council 
for  New  England,  who  made  a  grant  of  it,  first  to  the  Earl  of 
Warwick,  and  from  that  proprietary  it  had  passed  into  various 
other  hands.  Without  any  permit  from  these  new  proprie 
taries,  the  colony  of  Plymouth  had,  in  1633,  established  the 
trading-post  of  Windsor  on  the  river  just  above  the  Dutch 
post,  and  in  point  of  time  only  a  few  months  later. 

In  1635  came  JOHN  WINTHROP,  eldest  son  of  the  governor 
of  the  Massachusetts  Bay  colony,  with  a  commission  from  the 
proprietaries  to  build  a  fort  at  the  mouth  of  the  Connecticut. 
This  was  done,  and  the  place  called  Saybrook.  In  the  autumn 
a  second  company  of  sixty  pilgrims,  among  whom  were  a 
number  of  women  and  children,  set  out  from  the  Massa 
chusetts  settlements  on  their  forest  journey  to  the  Connecticut, 
driving  their  cattle  before  them.  They  had  scarcely  arrived 
at  the  banks  of  the  river,  when  the  winter  set  in,  early  and 
severe.  Many  of  the  cattle  perished  ;  supplies  of  provisions 
which  were  to  have  been  sent  around  by  water,  could  not 
reach  them  because  of  the  closing  of  the  river  by  ice;  and 
there  being  but  poor  shelter  as  yet  provided,  all  except  a  few 
either  returned  through  the  bleak  woods,  or  else  made  their 
way  down  to  Saybrook. 


1638]  CONNECTICUT  AND  NEW  HAVEN.  147 

In  the  summer  of  the  ensuing  year  (1636)  a  more  auspicious 
emigration  followed,  led  by  HOOKER  and  STONE,  ministers  of 
the  gospel,  and  by  John  Haynes,  reputed  a  ''gentleman  of 
great  estate."  Hartford,  Wethersfield  and  Windsor  were  now 
regularly  established  as  settlements,  while  a  fourth  party  lo 
cated  farther  up  the  river,  at  Springfield.  But  the  dawning 
prosperity  of  the  infant  colony  of  Connecticut  was  very  soon 
interrupted  by  an  Indian  war.  Before  treating  of  this,  men 
tion  should  be  made  here  of  the  founding  of  the  adjoining 
colony  of  New  Haven. 

There  arrived  in  Boston  at  this  time,  when  the  Hutchinson 
controversy  was  at  its  height,  a  company  of  merchants  from 
England,  led  by  THEOPHILUS  EATON,  and  with  them  a  non 
conformist  minister  named  JOHN  DAVENPORT.  The  agitation 
which  prevailed  in  the  province  about  religious  matters,  made 
these  well-to-do  emigrants  quite  unwilling  to  fix  their  habita 
tions  in  those  parts;  hence  Eaton,  having  been  sent  in  advance 
to  select  a  suitable  place  for  a  settlement,  chose  the  locality  at 
the  head  of  Quinnipiack  bay  on  Long  Island  Sound.  A  tract 
of  ten  miles  by  thirteen  was  purchased  of  the  Indians,  at  the 
price  of  ten  coats;  and  here  the  plan  of  a  city  on  a  liberal 
scale  was  laid  out  (1638),  and  called  NEW  HAVEN. 

The  first  assembly  for  organization  was  held  in  a  barn ;  and, 
from  a  committee  of  twelve  persons,  there  were  selected 
"Seven  Pillars,"  as  they  were  called,  for  the  "House  of 
Wisdom."  The  right  of  suffrage  was  restricted  to  church 
members,  as  in  Massachusetts,  although  in  the  colony  of  Con 
necticut,  that  privilege  had  been  conferred  on  all  residents  of 
respectable  character.  The  Scriptures  were  ordered  to  be  the 
law  of  the  land,  as  they  were  held  to  contain  every  needful 
regulation  for  good  government :  and  inasmuch  as  no  warrant 
for  trial  by  jury  was  to  be  found  in  its  pages,  that  process  was 
not  established.  Eaton  was  chosen  first  governor,  and  was 
annually,  for  twenty  years,  re-elected  to  the  post. 


I48  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1636 

THE   PEQUOD   WAR. 

The  habitations  of  the  Wampanoags  or  Pokanokets,  were 
east  of  Narragansett  bay,  while  on  its  western  side  dwelt 
the  tribe  of  the  Narragansetts.  West  of  these  again  were 
the  Pequods,  a  much  more  numerous  tribe,  whose  domain  ex 
tended  nearly  to  the  Hudson.  Between' the  Pequods  and  the 
Wampanoags  was  a  band  of  Mohegans — a  name  frequently 
given  to  all  the  Indians  of  the  lower  Connecticut.  The  pesti 
lence,  already  referred  to,  which  had  carried  off  so  many  of 
the  aborigines  of  New  England,  had  left  New  Hampshire  and 
Vermont  nearly  an  uninhabited  wilderness;  but  in  Maine, 
west  of  the  Kennebec,  were  the  tribes  of  the  Tarenteens,  and 
east  of  that  river,  the  Abenakis.  Exclusive  of  Maine,  the 
New  England  Indians,  at  that  time,  probably  numbered  about 
15,000  persons. 

The  origin  of  the  war  of  1636  with  the  Pequods,  appears 
to  have  been  as  follows.  The  captain  of  a  trading  vessel 
from  Virginia,  of  bad  character  and  accused  of  a  serious 
offence,  had  been  ordered  away  from  Boston,  but  on  his  way 
back,  had  entered  the  Connecticut  river,  where  he  and  his 
crew  were  murdered  by  the  Pequods.  The  latter  claimed  that 
the  deed  was  done  in  self-defence.  The  same  tribe  had  sub 
sequently  given  umbrage  to  the  Dutch,  and  their  present  of 
wampum  was  refused.  The  Narragansetts  also  had  been  guilty 
of  the  death  of  a  trader,  and  the  capture  of  his  vessel  and 
crew  at  Block  island;  and  this  the  settlers  revenged  by  killing 
and  drowning  eleven  of  the  offenders.  Canonicus  and  Mian- 
tonomah,  much  grieved  at  the  unauthorized  murder  by  their 
tribe,  promptly  restored  the  vessel  and  prisoners,  supposing 
that  nothing  more  would  be  asked,  as  life  had  been  taken  for 
life,  eleven-fold.  But  the  event  proved  otherwise. 

A  company  of  90  volunteers  under  Endicott  sailed  to  Block 
island,  having  orders  to  put  all  the  men  to  death,  and  to  make 


1636]  THE   PEQUOD    WAR.  149 

prisoners  of  the  women  and  children.  But  the  islanders  es 
caping  inland,  Endicott  destroyed  their  corn  and  canoes, 
burnt  their  wigwams,  and  sailed  across  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Connecticut.  Then,  marching  against  the  Pequods,  he  burnt 
two  of  their  villages,  and  returned  to  Boston  without  losing 
a  man.  The  Pequods,  frenzied  at  what  appeared  a  very  harsh 
retaliation,  during  the  winter  killed  as  many  as  thirty  of  the 
settlers  on  the  Connecticut,  and  also  endeavored  to  persuade 
the  Narragansetts  to  join  with  them.  But  the  interposition 
of  Roger  Williams  prevented  this,  while  Canonicus  sent  a 
messenger  to  Boston  offering  his  services  against  the  Pequods, 
though  recommending  that  the  women  and  children  should 
be  spared. 

The  Connecticut  volunteers,  and  some  Mohegan  and  Narra- 
gansett  allies,  without  waiting  for  reinforcements  from  Boston, 
proceeded  against  two  of  the  fortified  villages  of  the  Pequods, 
which  were  situated  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Thames.  The 
clustered  wigwams  being  merely  protected  by  a  rough  pali 
sade  of  trees  and  brush-wood,  the  guns  of  the  assailants  soon 
gained  for  them  an  entrance.  Mason,  the  leader  (who  had 
been  solemnly  invested  with  the  command  by  a  clergyman),  set 
the  mat-covered  wigwams  ablaze  with  a  fire-brand.  No  mercy 
was  shown ;  and  shortly,-  by  fire-arms  and  the  flames,  all  the 
Pequod  warriors,  with  their  women  and  children — six  hundred 
in  number — perished,  save  only  seven  who  escaped  and  seven 
who  were  held  as  prisoners.  Of  the  English,  two  only  were 
killed.  Underbill,  who  figured  in  Kieft's  Indian  war,  was 
prominent  as  a  leader  in  this  massacre. 

When  the  volunteers  from  Massachusetts  arrived,  the  miser 
able  remnant  of  the  Indians  was  savagely  hunted  down,  for  it 
was  determined  that  the  Pequods  should  be  a  tribe  no  more. 
Being  pursued  and  surrounded  in  a  swamp,  and  finding  that 
further  resistance  was  hopeless,  most  of  them  surrendered ;  the 
rest  united  with  the  Mohegans  and  Narragansetts.  About 


1 50  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1640 

fifty  of  the  prisoners  were  distributed  among  the  principal 
colonists  as  slaves.  SASSACUS,  the  head  sachem,  having  fled 
to  the  Mohawks  for  protection,  was  murdered  by  them  and 
his  scalp  sent  to  Boston. 

The  colonists  produced  their  Bibles  as  ample  warrant  for  their 
bloody  acts.  "  We  had  sufficient  light  from  the  word  of  God  for  our 
proceedings,"  said  Underhill ;  while  Mason  exulted  that  "Thus  the 
Lord  was  pleased  to  smite  our  enemies,  and  to  give  us  their  lands  for 
an  inheritance.'1''  But  the  Supreme  Judge  has  no  pleasure  in  such 
slaughter.  More  truly  applicable  was  the  language  spoken  to  Ahab, 
who  coveted  the  vineyard  of  Naboth,  "  Hast  thou  killed,  and  also 
taken  possession  ?" 


THE   UNITED   COLONIES   OF   NEW   ENGLAND. 

The  population  of  New  England,  at  the  time  of  the  Pequod 
war,  numbered  nearly  twenty  thousand.  There  being  as  yet  no 
institution  for  the  advanced  education  of  the  youth,  the  gen 
eral  court,  in  1637,  made  provision  for  a  public  school,  which 
was  accordingly  established  at  Cambridge.  Henry  Dunster,  a 
learned  Hebrew  scholar,  was  its  first  president.  The  follow 
ing  year,  in  acknowledgment  of  a  large  bequest  of  books  and" 
of  a  considerable  sum  of  money,  the  endowment  of  John  Har 
vard,  the  institution  received  the  name  of  HARVARD  COLLEGE. 
Soon  afterward  there  arrived  the  first  printing-press  used  by 
the  English  in  America.  Its  first  important  production,  im 
printed  (1640)  by  Stephen  Day,  was  a  metrical  version  of  the 
Psalms,  which  had  been  prepared  by  John  Eliot  and  others, 
and  revised  by  Dunster. 

The  fabrication  of  cotton,  linen  and  woollen  cloths,  was 
started,  so  that  the  colonies  were  not  altogether  dependent 
on  the  mother  country  for  such  necessary  supplies.  Ship 
building  also  became  a  profitable  source  of  industry,  and  the 
vessels  afforded  a  ready  means  for  engaging  in  trade  with  the 


1 643]        UNITED   COLONIES   OF  NF.W  ENGLAND.          15! 

other  English  colonies  and  the  West  Indies,  and  even  with 
European  ports.  Staves  and  dried  fish  were  principal  articles 
of  export.  This  commerce,  however,  was  not  by  any  means 
productive  of  unmixed  good,  since  the  ships  which  carried 
the  New  England  products  across  the  ocean  were  accustomed 
to  go  around  by  the  Guinea  coast  for  return  cargoes  of  slaves. 
These,  as  the  demand  for  them  at  the  North  was  not  great, 
were  usually  disposed  of  at  the  Barbadoes,  or  other  English 
islands  in  the  West  Indies. 

The  currency  made  use  of  in  the  colonies  was  of  various 
sorts.  There  was  not  much  coin  in  circulation,  but  beaver- 
skins  were  considered  an  excellent  medium  of  exchange.  Foi 
awhile,  musket-balls  supplied  the  place  of  small  change,  and 
were  valued  at  a  farthing  apiece.  But  the  usual  substitute  for 
coin  was  wampum,  or  pieces  of  shell,  bead-shaped,  and  drilled 
through  the  centre  so  as  to  be  strung  on  a  thread.  They  were 
of  two  colors,  white  and  black  or  dark-purple,  the  white  being 
worth  but  half  as  much  as  the  dark-colored.  Six  white  or 
three  black  beads  were  valued  at  a  penny. 

In  1641,  New  Hampshire  was  annexed  to  Massachusetts, 
and  so  continued  for  thirty-eight  years;  and,  in  1643,  there 
was  organized  the  confederacy  known  by  the  title  of  the 
UNITED  COLONIES  OF  NEW  ENGLAND,  which  embraced  the 
colonies  of  Massachusetts,  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New 
Haven.  The  prime  abject  of  this  alliance  was  mutual  protec 
tion  against  the  encroachments  of  the  Dutch  and  the  French, 
but  particularly  against  the  Indians,  from  whom  a  conjoint 
attack  began  to  be  feared.  It  was  also  declared  that  the 
upholding  of  the  "truth  and  the  liberties  of  the  gospel" 
were  to  be  considered  as  of  special  importance.  There  were 
appointed  two  commissioners  from  each  of  the  colonies,  to 
meet  annually,— the  sessions  to  be  held  alternately  at  Bos 
ton,  Plymouth,  Hartford  and  New  Haven.  One  of  their 
number  was  appointed  president  of  the  body,  and  in  deciding 


152  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1644 

upon  any  measure  the  assent  of  six  out  of  eight  members  was 
necessary. 

The  provinces  of  Maine  and  Rhode  Island  were  not  invited 
to  become  a  part  of  the  confederacy,  "because,"  it  was  af 
firmed,  "the  people  there  ran  a  different  course  both  in  their 
ministry  and  civil  administration."  The  Baptist  settlers  in 
Rhode  Island  were  especially  obnoxious.  A  considerable 
body  of  them  settled,  in  1644,  at  a  place  which  they  called 
NEWPORT.  The  same  year,  Roger  Williams  having  been  com 
missioned  to  proceed  to  England  to  solicit  a  charter  for  the 
Providence  Plantations,  obtained  one  from  the  Long  Parlia 
ment,  chiefly  at  the  intercession  of  Sir  Henry  Vane. 

About  the  same  time,  Miantonomah,  having  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  the  Mohegans,  his  bitter  enemies,  their  chief, 
UNCAS,  with  his  own  hand  put  him  to  death.  It  is  said  that 
Uncas,  cutting  off  a  piece  from  the  shoulder  of  the  prostrate 
warrior,  devoured  it,  exclaiming  that  it  made  his  heart  strong 
and  was  the  sweetest  morsel  he  ever  ate  !  Thus  fell  the  In 
dian  friend  of  Roger  Williams.  The  gravity  of  Miantonomah's 
offence  may  possibly  have  been  greater  than  that  of  Uncas ; 
nevertheless,  his  fate  was  a  cruel  one  and  should  not  have 
been  permitted.  The  Connecticut  commissioners  wickedly 
assented  to  the  act  in  delivering  him  back  to  Uncas  (who  had 
referred  the  case  to  them),  they  knowing  that  the  Mohegan 
chief  would  be  his  executioner.  Pessacus,  a  brother  of  Mi 
antonomah,  and  Ninigret,  his  cousin,  were  the  chief  sachems 
of  the  Narragansetts  after  the  death  of  the  great  chief. 

The  government  organized  by  Williams  and  his  associates, 
under  the  charter,  was  equally  as  just  and  liberal  as  the  com 
pact  made  when  Providence  was  first  planted.  Its  execu 
tion  was  intrusted  to  a  president,  assistants  and  assembly. 
All  laws- enacted  by  the  assembly  were  to  be  first  submitted 
to  the  towns  and  to  meet  with  the  approval  of  a  majority  of 
them.  The  assistants  constituted  the  supreme  court  of  law; 


1656]  PERSECUTION  OF  THE    QUAKERS.  153 

but  in  each  of  the  towns  there  was  an  inferior  court  for  the 
trial  of  petty  cases.  To  every  person  was  assured  freedom 
of  religious  belief,  as  also  permission  to  worship  according  to 
the  dictate  of  his  conscience ;  an  enactment  which  is  worthy 
of  note,  as  it  was  the  first  legal  announcement  of  entire  re 
ligious  liberty  in  the  colonies.  (1644.) 

Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  likewise  published  their 
complete  code  of  laws  shortly  afterward,  in  1649  and  1650. 
They  recite  a  lengthy  list  of  opinions  affirmed  to  be  heretical, 
the  promulgators  of  any  of  which  were  declared  liable  to  ban 
ishment.  Jesuits  were  prohibited  from  entering  the  country, 
a  repetition  of  the  offence  being  punishable  with  death. 

John  Clarke,  of  Rhode  Island,  with  two  others,  being  on 
a  visit  to  Lynn,  the  former  delivered  a  public  exhortation  at 
the  house  of  a  friend,  for  which  offence  they  were  all  arrested 
and  carried  by  force  to  hear  the  regular  preacher.  Clarke 
was  sentenced,  in  addition,  to  pay  a  fine  of  ^20  or  be 
whipped ;  part  of  the  charge  against  him  being  that  he  re 
fused  to  take  off  his  hat  in  the  meeting-house.  Holmes,  one 
of  his  companions,  was  fined  ^£30,  in  addition  to  a  flogging. 
Upon  being  loosed  from  the  whipping-post,  he  exclaimed  : 
"Although  the  Lord  hath  made  it  easy  to  me,  I  pray  God  it 
may  not  be  laid  to  your  charge."  Two  persons,  for  shaking 
hands  with  him  and  uttering  words  of  praise,  were  both  fined 
and  imprisoned.  At  a  later  date,  the  learned  Dunster,  presi 
dent  of  Harvard  College,  was  fined  for  his  Baptist  belief,  and 
obliged  to  resign  his  position.  We  must  now  turn  our  atten 
tion  to  the  far  more  bitter  persecution  of  the  Friends,  or,  as 
they  were  then  in  derision  called,  the  Quakers. 


THE   PERSECUTION   OF   THE   QUAKERS. 

There  existed   no  law  in  the  province  especially  directed 
against   the  Quakers  when,  in   1656,  Mary  Fisher  and  Ann 
G* 


I54  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1656 

Austin,  members  of  that  greatly-traduced  society,  arrived  in 
Boston  harbor  from  the  Barbadoes.  The  commissioners  were 
duly  apprised  of  the  coming  of  these  inoffensive  women,  who, 
it  was  declared,  were  "fit  instruments  to  propagate  the  King 
dom  of  Satan,"  and  a  law  was  solicited  to  debar  the  entrance 
"from  foreign  lands  of  such  notorious  heretics."  Their 
trunks  being  searched,  a  large  number  of  books  which  they 
contained  were  carried  ashore  and  burnt  in  the  market-place  by 
the  hangman ;  the  women  were  then  imprisoned  by  order  of 
Bellingham,  the  deputy-governor,  and  their  persons  searched 
for  signs  of  witchcraft.  Being  clear  of  any  indications  of 
that  nature,  after  enduring  an  imprisonment  of  five  weeks, 
they  were  placed  on  board  a  vessel  and  sent  away.  In  the 
meantime  eight  others  of  the  same  sect  arrived.  These  were 
kept  in  jail  for  the  space  of  eleven  weeks,  and  then  sent  back 
to  England  at  the  charge  of  the  master  of  the  vessel ;  he 
having  been  imprisoned  until  he  promised  to  take  them 
away. 

A  strenuous  law  was  forthwith  enacted,  by  which  it  was 
provided  that  any  one  who  brought  a  Quaker  into  the  colony 
should  suffer  a  fine  of  ;£ioo,  besides  incurring  the  obligation 
to  carry  such  a  one  away  again.  The  punishment  of  the 
Quaker,  in  such  a  case,  was  to  be  flogging,  and  imprison 
ment  at  hard  labor  until  transported.  Any  one  defending 
the  opinions  of  the  Quakers  was  also  liable  to  a  fine  and 
other  penalties.  But  these  enactments  failed  of  their  pur 
pose. 

A  widow  who  came  from  England  to  Massachusetts,  having 
debts  owing  her  there,  was  thrust  into  prison,  and  confined 
three  months ;  then  sent  back  to  England,  her  long  voyage 
resulting  in  no  relief  to  herself  and  fatherless  children.  Be 
side  many  others  who  suffered,  were  Lawrence  and  Cassandra 
Southwick,  an  aged  couple  living  near  Boston.  Though  not 
Quakers,  yet  upon  beholding  the  cruelties  which  were  inflicted 


1657]  PERSECUTION  OF   THE    QUAKERS.  155 

upon  that  peaceful  people,  they  were  led,  with  others,  to  for 
sake  the  appointed  assemblies  and  to  meet  by  themselves  on 
the  first  day  of  the  week.  For  this,  Lawrence  and  Cassandra 
received  thirty  stripes  with  a  knotted  whip  of  three  cords, 
and  part  of  their  household  goods  were  sold  to  pay  a  fine  im 
posed  for  being  absent  from  the  established  meeting. 

The  rulers,  believing  that  the  law  was  still  too  lenient — for 
the  Quakers  persisted  in  returning  even  after  being  fined, 
flogged  and  imprisoned — ordered  that  those  found  guilty  of 
coming  back  after  banishment,  should  surfer  the  loss  of  their 
ears,  and  have  their  tongues  bored  through  with  a  hot  iron. 
One,  William  Brend,  having  been  apprehended  and  brought 
before  the  magistrates,  was  accused  of  holding  certain  unchris 
tian  doctrines.  The  allegation  was  shown  to  be  untrue ; 
nevertheless,  Brend  was  imprisoned  in  Boston,  and  having 
declined  to  work  for  the  jailor,  was  put  in  irons,  his  neck  and 
heels  tied  together,  and  kept  in  that  trying  position  for  many 
hours.  No  food  was  given  him  for  several  days.  In  this,  his 
weak  condition,  having  received  about  a  hundred  blows  with 
a  pitched  rope,  he  nearly  died  under  the  inhuman  torture. 

The  news  of  this  outrage  becoming  known  in  the  town, 
caused  such  an  outcry,  that  Endicott,  the  governor,  sent  his 
surgeon  to  the  prison  to  see  what  could  be  done.  The  sur 
geon  reported  the  condition  of  the  victim  to  be  so  deplorable, 
that  his  flesh  would  rot  off  the  bones  ere  the  bruised  parts 
could  be  healed.  This  still  farther  exasperated  the  people, 
but  the  magistrates  cast  the  blame  upon  the  jailor,  and  said 
that  he  should  be  duly  dealt  with.  But  John  Norton,  the 
principal  clergyman  in  the  town,  as  well  as  a  chief  instigator 
of  the  persecution,  exclaimed,  that  as  "  Brend  endeavored  to 
beat  our  gospel  ordinances  black  and  blue,  if  he  then  be 
beaten  black  and  blue,  it  is  but  just  upon  him — and  I  will  ap 
pear  in  his  behalf  that  did  so." 

Thus,    Norton    and    others    of   the   clergy,   apprehending 


156  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1658 

that  scourging  and  cutting  off  of  ears,  was  still  insufficient 
punishment  for  those  who  held  to  the  faith  and  practice  of  the 
Quakers,  petitioned  the  magistrates  that  a  law  be  enacted  to 
banish  the  so-called  "heretics,"  upon  pain  of  death.  A 
court  composed  of  twenty-five  persons  was  accordingly  held, 
and,  by  a  majority  of  one  vote  only,  a  law  was  passed  per 
mitting  a  county  court  of  three  magistrates  to  decree  the 
punishment  of  death,  without  benefit  of  trial  by  jury :  a  clear 
infringement  of  the  fundamental  law  of  England.  This  result 
so  troubled  one  who  was  kept  away  from  the  court  by  illness, 
and  whose  vote  would  have  defeated  the  measure,  that,  weep 
ing,  he  declared  he  would  have  crept  to  the  court  upon  his 
knees  rather  than  it  should  have  passed.  The  law,  however, 
upon  the  earnest  protest  of  the  dissenting  voters,  was  so 
amended  as  that  trial  by  jury  was  allowed. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  harsh  .treatment  endured  by 
Lawrence  and  Cassandra  Southwick.  A  son  and  daughter 
of  these,  likewise  refusing  to  frequent  the  assemblies  of  those 
who  had  become  such  relentless  persecutors,  were  each  heavily 
fined  for  the  offence.  Upon  account  of  their  low  estate,  the 
penalty  could  not  be  produced  ;  whereupon  the  court  decreed 
that  they  should  be  sold  "  to  any  of  the  English  nation,  at 
Virginia  or  Barbadoes,  to  answer  the  said  fines."  But  there 
was  no  master  of  a  ship  to  be  found  who  was  base  enough  to 
carry  them  away :  the  mariners  remembered  better  than  did 
the  rulers,  that  the  judgments  of  the  Lord  were  of  old  time 
against  those  who  "sold  the  righteous  for  silver,  and  the  poor 
for  a  pair  of  shoes." 

In  Whittier's  ballad  of  "Cassandra  Southwick"  the  above 
incident  is  narrated  with  much  beauty  and  pathos : 

"  '  Pile  my  ship  with  bars  of  silver, — pack  with  coins  of  Spanish  gold, 
From  keel-piece  up  to  deck-plank,  the  roomage  of  her  hold, 
By  the  living  God  who  made  me  ! — I  would  sooner  in  yon  bay 
Sink  ship  and  crew  and  cargo,  than  bear  this  child  away.' 


1659]  PERSECUTION  OF  THE    QUAKERS.  157 

"  '  Well  answered,  worthy  captain,  shame  on  their  cruel  laws  !' 
Ran  through  the  crowd  in  murmurs  loud  the  people's  just  applause. 
1  Like  the  herdsman  of  Tekoa,  in  Israel  of  old, 
Shall  we  see  the  poor  and  righteous  again  for  silver  sold  ?'  " 

We  now  come  to  the  cases  in  which  certain  of  the  Quakers 
suffered  the  penalty  of  death,  rather  than  offend  against  the 
drawings  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  clearly  revealed  in  their 
inmost  souls.  They  doubtless  felt  that  where  the  blood 
thirsty  spirit  of  intolerance  prevailed,  as  it  then  did  in  New 
England,  there  were  their  presence  and  exhortations  and  even 
the  sacrifice  of  their  lives,  particularly  needed.  In  obedience 
to  such  plain  intimations  of  duty  as  they  felt  that  they  could 
not,  without  guilt,  withstand,  came  Marmaduke  Stevenson,  a 
yeoman  of  Yorkshire,  William  Robinson,  merchant,  of  Lon 
don,  and  Mary  Dyer,  widow  of  the  recorder  of  Providence 
Plantation. 

These  were  all  imprisoned  upon  the  charge  of  being  Quakers. 
They  were  then  banished;  but,  having  returned,  the  sentence 
of  death  was  passed  upon  them  by  Endicott.  Mary  Dyer, 
however,  was  reprieved  when  on  the  scaffold.  Robinson  died, 
exclaiming,  "I  suffer  for  Christ,  in  whom  I  live,  and  for 
whom  I  die."  Stevenson,  as  he  stepped  up  the  ladder,  uttered 
the  words,  "  Be  it  known  unto  all  this  day,  that  we  suffer  not 
as  evil  doers,  but  for  conscience'  sake."  The  following  year 
Mary  Dyer  again  returned,  and  being  once  more  sentenced 
to  death,  remarked  that  her  blood  would  be  required  at  the 
hands  of  those  who  did  wilfully  shed  it,  adding,  "But  for 
those  that  do  it  in  the  simplicity  of  their  hearts,  I  desire  the 
Lord  to  forgive  them.  I  came  to  do  the  will  of  my  Father, 
and  in  obedience  to  his  will,  I  stand  even  to  death."  But  so 
hardened  were  some  of  these  persecutors,  that  Adderton,  a 
general,  who  was  one  of  the  court,  said  scoffingly, — "She 
did  hang  as  a  flag  for  others  to  take  example  by." 

Fearful    of   the   result    of   these   bloody  proceedings,   the 


158  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1660 

magistrates  sent  over  to  King  Charles  a  declaration  of  the 
intentions  which  influenced  them  in  so  acting  towards  the 
Quakers,  and  ended  with  the  poor  apology  that  "  we  desire 
their  lives  absent,  rather  than  their  deaths  present."  In  a 
second  address  to  the  king,  they  said  that  the  magistrate,  in 
conscience  bound,  held  the  sword's  point  outward,  and  that 
if  the  Quakers  chose  to  rush  upon  it,  they  brought  their  blood 
upon  their  own  heads  ! 

In  the  meantime  William  Leddra,  who  had  suffered  at  the 
same  time  that  Brend  was  so  cruelly  scourged,  felt  the  neces 
sity  so  forcibly  laid  upon  him  to  return  to  the  province,  that 
he  repaired  thither  once  more,  and  hence  was  again  impris 
oned.  Being  brought  into  court,  ignominiously  chained  to  a 
log,  to  receive  his  sentence,  he  appealed  for  trial  to  the  laws 
of  England,  saying  that,  "If  by  them  I  am  found  guilty,  I 
refuse  not  to  die:"  for  the  English  law  did  not  punish  the 
Quakers  with  death.  Then  appeared  a  certain  Wenlock 
Christison,  who  also  had  been  banished  under  the  extreme 
penalty.  Fearless  in  the  right,  with  a  courage  which  quailed 
not  before  the  assembled  magistrates,  Wenlock  came  forward. 
For  a  few  moments  there  was  silence  in  the  court,  the  rulers 
being  amazed  and  awe-struck  at  the  sudden  appearance.  Then 
the  governor  demanded  why  he,  having  been  banished,  pre 
sumed  to  return  at  the  risk  of  his  life,  to  which  Wenlock 
made  reply,  that  he  came  with  a  warning  to  them  to  shed  no 
more  innocent  blood.  Nevertheless  Leddra  was  executed  the 
following  day.  As  the  executioner  placed  the  halter  round 
his  neck,  he  was  heard  to  say — "I  commit  my  righteous 
cause  unto  thee,  O  God." 

As  for  the  brave  Christison,  he  was  kept  several  weeks  in 
prison,  the  rulers  seeming  fearful  to  proceed  against  him. 
But  finally  the  council  being  agreed,  he  was  brought  up  to  the 
bar,  and  Endicott  demanded  of  him  if  he  had  anything  to 
say  for  himself,  why  he  should  not  die?  To  which  he 


i66oj  PERSECUTION  OF   THE   QUAKERS.  159 

answered,  "I  have  done  nothing  worthy  of  death;  if  I  had, 
I  refuse  not  to  die."  It  was  then  said  to  him  that  his  crime 
was  that  of  rebellion  and  ought  to  be  punished  ;  but  he  replied 
that  he  came  in  obedience  to  the  God  of  heaven  and  in  love 
to  them,  for  that  all  have  account  to  give  of  the  deeds  done 
in  the  body;  and  added,  "  Take  heed,  for  you  cannot  escape 
the  righteous  judgments  of  God."  To  which  the  general 
Adderton  made  answer:  "You  pronounce  woes  and  judg 
ments,  and  those  that  are  gone  before  you,  pronounced  woes 
and  judgments,  but  the  judgments  of  the  Lord  God  are  not 
come  upon  us  as  yet."  Then  Wenlock  warned  his  judges 
not  to  be  lifted  up  in  pride,  charging  Adderton  especially 
that  his  doom  would  be  sudden,  and  was  even  then  near 
at  hand.  When  the  vote  was  taken  as  to  sentencing  the 
prisoner  to  death,  there  was  a  division  of  opinion,  but  the 
governor  insisted  on  the  sentence,  which  he  accordingly 
pronounced. 

Wenlock  having  been  condemned,  solemnly  declared  to  the 
rulers  that  he  scarcely  believed  they  had  the  power  to  hurt 
him,  and  furthermore,  that  he  believed  they  should  never 
more  take  Quakers'  lives  from  them.  And  thus  it  turned  out; 
for  within  a  few  days,  himself  and  nearly  thirty  others  were 
liberated  ;  while,  several  months  later,  appeared  an  order  from 
the  king  that  those  summary  proceedings  must  cease,  and  that 
the  accused  might  be  sent  over  to  England  for  trial,  together 
with  the  indictments  laid  to  their  charge. 

Although  punishment  by  hanging  was  stayed,  yet  many  and 
sorrowful  were  the  scourgings  now  inflicted.  Only  two  or 
three  cases  need  be  instanced.  One,  was  that  of  Edward  Whar- 
ton,  who  had  once  befriended  the  governor  when  the  latter 
was  in  want,  but  now,  Wharton  being  a  Quaker,  was  brought 
to  the  market-place  in  Boston,  and  being  stripped  to  the  waist, 
was  bound  to  the  wheel  of  a  cannon,  and  lashed  most  cruelly. 
Josiah  Southwick  —  a  brother  of  those  two  who  had  been 


160  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1661 

ordered  to  be  sold — was  tied  to  a  cart,  and  underwent  the 
same  torture  as  did  Whartoh.  "  They  that  know  God  to  be 
their  strength,"  he  said,  "cannot  fear  what  man  can  do." 
At  Dover,  three  women  of  the  same  sect  were  sentenced  to 
be  tied  to  the  tail  of  a  cart,  to  be  driven  through  eleven  towns 
(a  distance  of  80  miles),  and  to  be  whipped  upon  their  bare 
backs  ten  stripes  in  each  place.  This  was  in  winter.  But 
again  they  returned  to  Dover,  and  one  of  them  while  kneel 
ing  in  prayer  was  seized,  and  having  been  dragged  a  long 
distance  in  the  snow,  over  stumps  and  fallen  trees,  was  then 
placed  in  confinement.  Her  companion  met  with  similar 
barbarous  treatment. 

General  Adderton  came  to  his  end,  sudden  and  unawares, 
as  Wenlock  Christison  had  prophesied;  for  on  a  day  when  he 
had  reviewed  his  soldiers  and  was  riding  proudly  by  the  place 
where  the  Quakers  were  usually  loosed  from  the  cart  after 
they  had  been  whipped,  his  horse  took  fright,  and,  dashing 
him  violently  to  the  ground,  he  died  most  miserably.  Endi- 
cott,  soon  after  the  scourging  of  Wharton,  was  visited  with  a 
loathsome  disease  which  carried  him  off;  while  Norton,  who 
had  been  so  active  in  procuring  the  death-law,  and  in  securing 
its  enforcement,  died  suddenly  in  his  house,  exclaiming — 
"The  hand  [or  the  judgments]  of  the  Lord  are  upon  me." 


CHAPTER    XII. 

MARYLAND.     PROGRESS   OF  THE  VIRGINIA   COLONY. 
1632—1683. 


LORD   BALTIMORE— THE   FOUNDER   OF   MARYLAND. 

THE  gradual  ascendency  of  the  Protestant  faith  in  England, 
since  the  death  of  that  persecuting  sovereign  who  is  known 
in  history  as  "Bloody  Mary,"  had  resulted  in  the  establish 
ment  of  another  form  of  state  religion,  but  with  the  spirit 
of  intolerance  by  no  means  allayed.  The  Puritan  non-con 
formists  had  indeed  sought,  and  secured,  a  home  for  their 
brethren,  but,  as  we  have  seen,  the  broad  mantle  of  charity 
did  not  overspread  all  their  land.  And  now  the  English 
Papists,  exposed  alike  to  the  enmity  of  the  State-religionists 
and  the  Puritans,  turned  their  gaze  also,  with  hopes  of  relief, 
to  the  Western  World.  They  found  an  able  helper  in  GEORGE 
CALVERT,  a  member  of  the  former  Virginia  Company  of  Lon 
don,  and  also  Secretary  of  the  kingdom. 

Shortly  after  the  time  of  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims,  Calvert 
obtained  a  grant  of  territory,  which  he  called  by  the  name 
of  Avalon — it  being  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  island  of 
Newfoundland.  A  settlement  was  effected  here  (1624),  which 
Calvert  twice  visited  ;  but  being  well  persuaded  that  any 
colony  would  eventually  languish  and  fail  of  success  if  planted 
in  so  high  a  latitude,  exposed  also  as  it  would  be  to  the  jeal 
ousy  of  the  French  and  to  the  plundering  fishermen  of  the 
neighboring  shores,  the  project  was  abandoned,  and  a  more 

15*  161 


162  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1632 

desirable  locality  sought  for.  The  situation  of  Virginia 
greatly  recommended  it,  yet  Calvert,  upon  his  visit  of  inspec 
tion  to  that  province,  found  that  he  could  not,  as  a  Romanist, 
take  the  oath  of  supremacy  which  would  be  there  tendered 
him.  He  therefore  turned  his  attention  to  another  quarter, 
as  yet  unoccupied,  where  men's  consciences  would  be  left  un 
trammelled.  Previous  to  this  visit  Calvert  had  acquired  the 
title  of  Lord  Baltimore. 

The  territory  which  was  chosen,  and  for  which  a  grant  was 
obtained  from  Charles  the  First,  was  that  portion  lying  north 
of  the  Potomac  river,  bounded  by  the  4oth  parallel  of  lati 
tude,  and  extending  in  width  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean  to  the 
head-waters  of  the  Potomac.  It  received  the  name  of  MARY 
LAND,  in  honor  of  Henrietta  Maria,  the  queen.  Lord  Balti 
more  having  died  before  the  charter  was  issued,  his  son  CECIL 
at  once  succeeded  to  the  proprietorship,  in  1632.  By  the 
charter,  the  province  was  conferred  upon  the  first  Lord  Balti 
more  and  his  heirs,  with  power  to  make  all  necessary  laws 
consonant  to  reason  and  not  repugnant  to  the  laws  of  Eng 
land,  subject,  however,  to  the  "advifce,  consent  and  approba 
tion  of  the  freemen  of  the  province."  This  was  a  wise  and 
prompt  concession  to  the  rights  of  the  governed,  which,  in 
the  case  of  Virginia  and  New  England,  had  not  at  first  been 
recognized.  The  ecclesiastical  law  of,  England  was  declared 
to  be  the  ruling  church  power,  but  it  was  so  bent  by  the 
Baltimores  as  to  conform  to  Catholicism  as  well. 

The  charter  met  with  great  opposition  from  WILLIAM  CLAY- 
BORNE,  Secretary  of  the  council  of  Virginia,  who,  in  his 
capacity  of  surveyor,  had  made  explorations  in  the  Chesa 
peake,  and,  furthermore,  had  obtained  a  royal  license  which 
permitted  him  to  trade  in  those  parts.  He  had  established 
a  post  at  the  mouth  of  the  Susquehanna,  and  another  on  the 
long  island  of  Kent,  in  the  bay,  east  of  Annapolis — both 
within  the  territory  just  granted  to  Lord  Baltimore.  Leaving 


1634]  LORD  BALTIMORE.  163 

Clayborne  to  obtain  redress  at  law,  the  first  Maryland  colony, 
under  LEONARD  CALVERT,  a  brother  of  Cecil,  the  proprietary, 
sailed  in  two  ships,  the  Ark  and  the  Dove,  and  early  in  the 
year  1634,  landed  on  the  north  side  of  the  Potomac,  near  its 
mouth,  at  an  Indian  village  which  they  called  St.  Mary's. 

Fortunately  for  the  colonists,  the  Indians  kindly  agreed 
that  the  whites  should  occupy  the  wigwams  and  be  permitted 
to  till  the  cleared  ground.  A  good  crop  of  corn  was  secured 
the  same  year,  and  the  Dove  was  sent  to  Massachusetts  to 
obtain  a  supply  of  fish  in  exchange  for  the  grain.  In  the 
meantime  the  feud  with  Clayborne  came  to  a  crisis  ;  for  he, 
having  made  a  hostile  demonstration,  the  settlers  of  St.  Mary's 
possessed  themselves  of  the  island  of  Kent,  though  not  with 
out  bloodshed.  Clayborne  escaped  to  Virginia,  and  being 
apprehended  by  the  governor  of  that  province,  was  sent  to 
England.  His  island  property  was  confiscated  by  the  Mary 
land  Assembly. 

To  encourage  emigration,  the  proprietary  promised  to  allot 
a  manor  of  a  thousand  acres  to  every  settler  who  would  trans 
port  five  men  to  the  colony ;  the  land  to  be  held  at  a  yearly 
rent  of  twenty  shillings,  payable  in  produce.  A  married  im 
migrant  received  one  hundred  acres  for  himself,  the  same  for 
his  wife,  and  fifty  acres  for  each  child,  besides  grants  for  the 
servants, — the  whole  subject  to  a  rent  of  a  few  shillings.  In 
accordance  with  the  charter,  deputies  met  and  formed  a  House 
of  Burgesses  ;  framed  a  constitution  ;  and  enacted  a  code  of 
laws.  Lord  Baltimore  had  first  sent  over  a  set  of  statutes 
drawn  up  by  himself,  but  the  settlers  refused  to  concede  to 
him  any  privilege  as  to  the  power  of  legislation. 

The  cultivation,  and  the  price,  of  tobacco,  early  became  a 
matter  for  legislative  regulation  in  Maryland,  as  well  as  in 
Virginia.  In  both  provinces,  every  person  who  planted  that 
staple  was  required  to  cultivate  two  acres  of  corn.  But  as 
large  quantities  of  the  weed  were  also  produced  in  several  of 


1 64  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1624 

the  West  India  islands,  and  as  the  price  had  greatly  declined, 
it  was  enacted  in  1639  by  the  Virginia  Assembly,  in  order  to 
enhance  the  value,  that  half  the  crop  should  be  burnt  >  and 
that  for  the  succeeding  two  years  a  reduced  amount  should  be 
raised.  Tobacco,  in  fact,  was  the  currency  in  Virginia  and 
Maryland,  as  wampum  was  at  the  same  period  in  New  Nether- 
land  and  New  England :  physicians  and  lawyers  received 
their  fees  in  it,  drunkenness  and  profanity  were  punishable  by 
fines  payable  in  the  same,  and  it  has  already  been  stated  that 
the  wives  of  some  of  the  first  Virginia  settlers  were  paid  for 
in  tobacco. 

INDIAN    TROUBLES    IN    VIRGINIA.       CLAYBORNE    OF    KENT 
ISLAND. 

At  the  time  of  the  dissolution  of  the  London  Virginia 
company  in  1624,  and  the  reversion  of  the  province  to  the 
king,  Wyatt  was  governor.  Five  years  later,  JOHN  HARVEY 
held  the  office ;  and  it  was  he  who  sent  the  fugitive  Clay- 
borne  to  England.  At  Point  Comfort,  at  the  entrance  of 
James  river,  Harvey  built  a  fort,  where  all  persons  entering 
the  colony  were  tendered  the  oath  of  allegiance  and  suprem 
acy,  and  all  vessels  were  sent  therefrom 'to  Jamestown  before 
any  part  of  their  cargoes  could  be  landed.  During  his  ad 
ministration,  a  law  was  made,  with  respect  to  the  Indians, 
that  no  person  should  be  permitted  to  speak  or  parley  with 
them,  and  the  commanders  were  authorized  to  fall  upon  any 
who  might  be  found  lurking  about  the  plantations.  To  sell 
powder  and  shot  to  Indians  involved  the  entire  forfeiture  of 
a  person's  estate. 

Under  SIR  WILLIAM  BERKELEY,  Harvey's  successor,  who 
held  the  governorship  for  the  most  part  of  forty  years,  an  en 
actment  was  made  that  all  ministers  should  use  the  liturgy  and 
conform  to  the  usages  of  the  church  of  England.  Non-con 
formists  were  requested  to  depart  the  colony ;  Romish  priests 


1 644]  CLAYBORNE    OF  KENT  ISLAND.  165 

being  compelled  to  do  so  within  the  space  of  five  days.  Some 
of  the  Puritan  colonists  sent  a  request  to  Boston  for  a  supply 
of  ministers,  three  of  whom  were  accordingly  deputed  with 
letters,  of  commendation  to  Governor  Berkeley  and  the  coun 
cil  ;  but  although  they  were  well  entertained,  yet  as  they 
refused  to  use  the  established  liturgy,  the  governor  very  soon 
sent  them  back  to  New  England. 

In  1644,  twenty-two  years  after  the  first  massacre  of  the 
Virginia  settlers  by  the  Powhatans  under  Opechancanough,  a 
second  sudden  uprising  occurred,  instigated,  it  was  said,  by 
the  same  chief.  This  warrior,  it  is  true,  was  of  a  crafty  na 
ture,  yet  he  had  deeply  felt,  from  the  first  arrival  of  the  whites, 
how  grossly  the  tribes  were  being  wronged  out  of  their  pos 
sessions.  Savage-like,  he  waited  sullenly  for  the  time  of 
retribution ;  beholding,  meanwhile,  how  his  enemies  con 
tinued  their  encroachments,  and,  in  accordance  with  their 
so-called  Christian  laws  shot  down  every  Indian  who  showed 
himself.  In  this  second  onslaught,  about  500  of  the  colonists 
were  massacred  in  one  day.  During  the  fierce  struggle  which 
ensued,  the  aged  chief  was  captured,  and,  having  been  taken 
to  Jamestown,  was  killed  by  a  soldier  who  had  been  appointed 
to  guard  him.  The  Indians  sued  for  peace,  and  gave  up  all 
claim  to  the  land  between  the  James  and  York  rivers.  No 
Indian  was  permitted  to  return  thither  under  pain  of  death. 

The  early  settlers  of  Maryland  were  mostly  at  peace  with 
the  natives,  although  occasionally  slight  disputes  arose  with 
the  Susquehannas  on  the  north,  and  with  the  Nanticokes  on 
the  eastern  shore  of  the  bay.  But  the  chief  antagonist  of  the 
colony,  or  rather  of  the  proprietary's  government,  was  Clay- 
borne  of  Kent  island.  He  had  applied  to  the  assembly  for 
the  restoration  of  his  property,  but  his  claim  having  been  re 
jected,  he  was  joined  by  other  disaffected  ones,  who,  forcing 
Calvert  to  return  to  Virginia,  possessed  themselves  also  of  the 
disputed  island.  The  governor,  after  an  absence  of  over  a 


1 66  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1654 

year,  returned  with  an  armed  force  and  established  himself 
again  in  power,  though  he  died  in  the  following  year,  1647. 

When  news  arrived  in  Virginia  of  the  execution  of  Charles 
I.,  the  governor  of  that  province  declared  in  favor  of  the 
second  Charles,  and  against  the  rule  of  Parliament.  An  ex 
pedition,  in  charge  of  five  commissioners,  was  accordingly 
despatched  to  the  Chesapeake  (1651),  to  oblige  the  colonists 
"to  be  true  and  faithful  to  the  commonwealth  of  England  as 
it  is  now  established,  without  king  or  House  of  Lords."  Two 
of  these  commissioners  were  Richard  Bennett,  who  had  been 
a  Puritan  emigrant  to  Maryland,  and  William  Clay  borne. 
Berkeley  having  been  deposed,  a  new  assembly  was  called, 
who  chose  Bennett  governor,  and  Clayborne  secretary. 

The  claimant  of  Kent  island  being  now  in  a  position  of 
influence,  lost  no  time  in  making  the  power  of  the  commis 
sioners  felt  in  the  adjoining  colony  of  Maryland.  STONE, 
the  governor,  although  a  parliamentarian,  was  deposed,  but 
upon  the  petition  of  the  inhabitants  was  reinstated  in  office. 
Two  years  later,  however,  when  Cromwell  was  proclaimed 
Protector  (1654),  Bennett  and  Clayborne  resented  Stone's 
proceedings,  which  they  thought  savored  too  much  of  a  strict 
allegiance  to  Lord  Baltimore,  the  proprietary.  Hence  Stone 
was  again  deposed,  the  commissioners  being  aided  by  the 
Puritan  settlers  of  Ann  Arundel — a  county  which  had  been 
so  named  in  honor  of  Lady  Baltimore.  Papists  and  pre- 
latists  were  arbitrarily  disfranchised,  and  were  forbidden  to 
sit  in  the  new  assembly ;  an  act  of  intolerance  such  as  had  not 
been  attempted  by  the  Catholic  proprietary. 

MARYLAND    DURING    CROMWELL'S     PROTECTORATE,   AND 
UNDER    CHARLES    II. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  lower  Patuxent  was  a  private 
house,  used  as  a  state-house,  and  here  the  records  of  the 
colony  were  kept.  South  of  the  Patuxent,  near  the  end  of 


i675]  MARYLAND    UNDER   CHARLES  //.  167 

the  peninsula  comprised  between  that  estuary  and  the  Poto 
mac,  were  the  Catholic  settlements  of  St.  Mary's ;  while,  at 
Providence  (afterward  Annapolis),  the  Puritans  were  chiefly 
located.  Stone,  who  resided  at  St.  Mary's,  being  blamed  by 
Lord  Baltimore  for  surrendering  his  authority  so  easily,  now 
called  the  Catholic  settlers  to  arms.  Having  first  seized  the 
records  at  the  house  on  the  Patuxent,  he  proceeded  with 
about  200  followers,  in  several  small  vessels,  to  make  an  at 
tack  upon  the  Puritan  settlement ;  but  the  attempt  resulted 
disastrously,  one-fourth  of  the  assailants  being  killed  and 
wounded.  Although  the  life  of  Stone  was  spared,  four  of  his 
principal  officers  were  condemned  to  death. 

The  cause  of  the  contestants  was  then  referred  to  the  Pro 
tector,  by  whom  two  commissioners  were  appointed  to  decide 
the  matter.  Their  report  was  favorable  to  Lord  Baltimore, 
who  sent  over  his  brother,  PHILIP  CALVERT,  to  be  secretary 
of  the  province,  and  JOSIAH  FENDAL  to  be  governor.  The 
Puritans  of  Ann  Arundel,  refusing  to  acknowledge  the 
authority  of  those  officers,  it  became  necessary  to  secure  the 
mediation  of  the  governor  of  Virginia.  Upon  the  restora 
tion  of  Charles  II.,  in  1660,  Philip  Calvert  received  a  com 
mission  as  governor  in  Fendal's  place,  while  the  latter,  though 
tried  and  found  guilty  of  acts  treasonable  to  Calvert,  was 
granted  a  pardon.  At  this  time  the  English  having  taken 
possession  of  New  Netherland  and  New  Sweden,  Lord  Balti 
more  claimed,  under  his  charter,  the  right  to  the  land  on  the 
Delaware  below  the  4oth  parallel  of  latitude  (that  of  Phila 
delphia),  but  the  Duke  of  York,  who  had  conquered  the 
land  from  the  Dutch,  insisted  on  retaining  his  acquisitions. 

Cecil,  Lord  Baltimore,  died  in  1675,  having  been  forty- 
three  years  proprietary.  His  administration  was,  in  the  main, 
a  mild  and  just  one.  The  population  of  the  province  although 
Catholic  at  the  first,  did  not  afterward  receive  many  acces 
sions  from  that  denomination.  Notwithstanding  that  the 


i68  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1660 

religious  scruples  of  the  colonists  were  usually  respected,  yet 
the  Quakers  suffered  occasional  hardships  for  maintaining 
their  testimonies  upon  War  and  Oaths.  Their  refusal  to  per 
form  military  duty  subjected  them  to  fines  and  to  harsh 
imprisonment ;  while  the  forfeiture  of  their  property  was 
sometimes  the  consequence  of  declining  to  take  an  oath. 

CHARLES,  the  eldest  son  of  Cecil,  now  became  proprietor. 
For  a  number  of  years  previously,  he  had  resided  in  the 
province  as  its  governor,  having  succeeded  his  uncle  Philip  ; 
but  upon  returning  to  England  he  was  called  to  account  upon 
the  charge  of  not  maintaining  the  established  Episcopal  re 
ligion  ;  that  there  were  no  parsonages  provided  for,  no  tithes 
collected  -as  in  Virginia,  and  that  the  morals  of  the  place  were 
in  a  low  state.  Lord  Baltimore,  in  his  defence,  referred  to 
the  large  number  of  religious  creeds  which  prevailed  there ; 
but  this  answer  was  not  considered  sufficient.  Meanwhile, 
these  proceedings  in  England  encouraged  the  malcontents  in 
the  colony — of  whom  Feudal  was  a  ringleader — to  seek  to 
undermine  the  authority  of  the  Catholic  proprietor.  Where 
upon  the  latter,  in  1681,  having  hastened  his  return,  Fendal 
was  put  under  arrest,  and,  being  found  guilty  of  sedition,  was 
promptly  banished. 


THE-ADMINISTRATION  OF  GOVERNOR  BERKELEY,  OF  VIRGINIA. 

In  Virginia,  the  news  of  the  King's  Restoration  (1660)  was 
followed  by  the  re-election  of  Berkeley  as  governor,  after  a 
retirement  of  eight  years.  His  salary  was  a  large  one  for  the 
time,  being  about  $3400  in  money,  collectable  from  the  duty 
on  exports ;  also  60,000  Ibs.  of  tobacco,  to  be  taken  out  of 
the  levy ;  a  bushel  of  corn  in  the  ear,  from  every  tithable  in 
habitant  ;  besides  the  customs  chargeable  on  Dutch  vessels 
from  New  Netherland.  The  latter  fee,  however,  did  not  long 
continue ;  for  by  a  navigation  act,  passed  in  England,  all 


1660]  VIRGINIA    UNDER  BERKELEY.  169 

foreign  vessels  were  forbidden  to  trade  with  the  colonies  of 
the  Dutch.  As  the  Virginians  built  no  vessels  of  their  own, 
Berkeley  was  at  once  commissioned  to  proceed  to  England  in 
behalf  of  the  planters ;  for  the  new  act,  by  removing  compe 
tition,  would  place  them  at  the  mercy  of  the  traders.  Al 
though  the  governor's  mission  was  unsuccessful,  he  took 
advantage  of  the  opportunity  to  enroll  himself  as  one  of  the 
eight  proprietors  of  the  new  province  of  Carolina. 

The  organization  of  society  in  Virginia  was  radically  dif 
ferent  from  what  it  was  in  New  England.  In  New  England, 
the  settlements  were  made  in  villages,  each  having  its  school, 
meeting-house,  and  concentrated  local  government..  As  a 
consequence  of  this  aggregation  of  people  in  close  communi 
ties,  the  manufacture  of  various  fabrics  soon  arose,  and  the 
colony  was  not  long  dependent  on  the  mother  country.  In 
Virginia,  on  the  contrary,  the  early  settlers  took  up  large 
plantations  on  the  tide-water  rivers,  and,  in  the  cultivation 
of  the  one  staple,  tobacco,  required  the  services  of  many 
helpers,  who  were  at  first  indentured  white  servants,  more 
often  than  slaves.  All  manufactured  goods  were  supplied  by 
England,  and  were  usually  brought  in  the  vessel  which  came 
to  the  planter's  wharf  to  take  away  his  tobacco.  Hence,  vil 
lages  and  towns  were  few  and  of  slow  growth,  and  education 
not  being  diffused  to  those  of  low  degree,  the  control  of  the 
government  tended  to  concentration  in  the  hands  of  the 
planters. 

The  Quaker  and  Anabaptist  heresies,  as  they  were  called, 
were  proceeded  against  according  to  the  code  of  New  Eng 
land.  For  a  ship-master  to  bring  Quakers  into  the  colony, 
or  for  any  one  to  entertain  persons  of  that  sect,  or  to  permit 
an  assembly  of  them  in  or  near  his  house,  there  was  imposed 
a  penalty  of  ;£ioo.  Fines  were  likewise  imposed  upon  all, 
Quakers  or  others,  who  did  not  attend  the  parish  chapels,  or 
who  refused  to  allow  their  children  to  be  baptized  by  the 
H  15 


I  yo  HISTORY  OF   THE    U \ITED   STATES.  [1673 

"  lawful"  minister.  A  more  lenient  spirit  began  to  be  mani 
fested  toward  the  Indians.  All  persons  found  encroaching 
upon  their  lands  were  to  be  removed ;  none  could  be  sold 
into  slavery ;  and  as  proof  of  an  apparent  desire  to  secure 
just  treatment,  several  of  the  colonists  were  heavily  fined  for 
wrongs  committed  and  for  intrusions  upon  them. 

The  fact  of  the  Africans  being  heathen,  had  been  esteemed 
a  sufficient  reason  why  they  should  be  held  as  slaves;  but 
when,  during  Berkeley's  administration  (1667),  the  question 
was  raised  in  the  assembly  of  Virginia,  as  to  whether  those 
negroes  who  had  become  Christians  could  any  longer  be  held 
to  servitude,  a  law  was  promptly  enacted  that  their  freedom 
was  not  to  be  secured  by  any  change  of  religion.  It  was  also 
declared  that  if  slaves  be  killed  by  extreme  correction,  the 
act  should  not  be  rated  as  a  great  crime. 

Some  of  the  POLYNESIAN  islanders  understood  the  proper  effect 
of  Christianity  upon  War  and  Slavery,  differently  from  these  legis 
lators.  "  When,"  says  William  Ellis,  "  Christianity  was  adopted 
by  the  people,  human  sacrifices,  infant  murder  and  war,  entirely 
ceased."  This  writer  and  another  missionary  agree  that  the  natives 
also  gave  freedom  immediately  to  all  their  slaves  :  they  never  con 
sidered  a  pure  religion  and  servitude  to  be  compatible.  Titus 
Coan,  an  American  missionary  to  the  Sandwich  islands,  went  in 
1833  to  Patagonia  with  a  single  companion.  They  were  unarmed, 
and  suffered  no  harm.  "They  were  not  jealous  or  afraid  of  us," 
says  Coan,  "and  we  left  them  unscathed,  under  the  wing  of  our 
Immanuel.  After  we  left  Patagonia,  seven  armed  missionaries  were 
starved  to  death  on  Terra  del  Fuego,  because  they  feared  to  go 
with  the  natives,  and  the  natives  feared  them.  At  a  later  date  eight 
missionaries  (armed)  were  slaughtered,  at  one  time,  by  the  same 
savages." 

The  year  1673  was  marked  by  a  startling  event  in  the  his 
tory  of  the  colony.  The  king,  a  few  years  previously,  had 
granted  to  LORD  CULPEPER,  the  whole  of  the  peninsula  in 
cluded  between  the  Potomac  and  the  Rappahannoc  rivers, 


1673]  BACON'S  REBELLION.  171 

known  by  the  name  of  the  "  Northern  Neck."  With  a  mar 
vellous  prodigality  the  same  sovereign  hand  now  assigned  to 
Lords  Culpeper  and  Arlington,  two  noblemen  notoriously 
rapacious,  not  only  the  Neck,  but  the  whole  province  of  Vir 
ginia,  to  be  under  their  control  for  the  term  of  31  years. 
Alarmed  at  this  remarkable  conveyance,  a  committee  was 
appointed  to  proceed  to  England  to  buy  off  the  grant ;  and, 
to  furnish  the  means,  a  large  special  tax,  payable  in  tobacco, 
was  imposed  upon  the  inhabitants.  This  onerous  tax,  as  well 
as  the  fact  that  the  tenure  of  their  lands  was  rendered  thus 
uncertain  by  reason  of  the  royal  caprice,  produced  much  dis 
satisfaction  among  the  colonists.  But,  for  the  mass  of  the  in 
habitants,  there  were  other  and  still  deeper  causes  of  grievance 
and  alarm,  to  wit :  the  recent  restriction  of  the  right  of  suf 
frage  to  freeholders  only ;  the  exemption  of  lands  from  taxa 
tion,  and  the  consequent  increased  burden  placed  upon  the 
poorer  part  of  the  community ;  also,  the  high  salaries  paid  to 
the  governor  and  the  burgesses,  which  were  largely  raised  by 
the  unequal  tax  upon  the  people.  These,  together  with  a 
formidable  Indian  outbreak,  were  some  of  the  causes  of  dis 
content  which  eventuated  in  Bacon's  Rebellion. 


BACON'S  REBELLION.  LORD  CULPEPER. 

Simultaneously  with  the  Indian  war  of  Philip  of  Pokanoket, 
in  New  England,  came  an  aggressive  movement  of  the  Sene- 
cas  of  New  York  upon  the  Susquehannahs  who  dwelt  at  the 
head  of  the  Chesapeake.  The  Susquehannahs,  in  their  turn, 
pressed  upon  the  Maryland  settlements,  and  a  war  with  the 
whites  resulted.  Then  followed  depredations  by  the  tribes 
south  of  the  Potomac.  Thereupon  a  body  of  the  Virginians, 
headed  by  John  Washington,  of  the  Northern  Neck  (ancestor 
of  the  President),  proceeded  against  the  natives ;  who,  being 


I72  HISTORY  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.  [1673 

hard  pressed,  sent  six  of  their  chiefs  to  treat  for  peace.  These 
messengers  were  slaughtered  by  the  whites  to  whom  they  were 
bearing  the  olive  branch. 

Such  perfidy,  inflicted  upon  the  persons  of  envoys,  precipi 
tated  a  murderous  attack  by  the  Indians  upon  the  borders  of 
the  colony,  as  far  south  as  the  falls  of  the  James.  In  the 
latter  neighborhood,  where  the  city  of  Richmond  now  stands, 
was  the  plantation  of  a  talented  and  eloquent  young  planter, 
NATHANIEL  BACON.  He  had  been  a  student  of  law  in  the 
Temple,  at  London,  whence  he  had  but  recently  arrived. 
His  plantation  had  been  attacked  by  the  Indians,  but,  dis 
daining  Berkeley's  plan  of  protection  by  the  use  of  forts, 
Bacon  demanded  a  general's  commission  to  organize  the 
militia  and  follow  in  pursuit  of  the  foe.  '  This  was  refused  by 
the  governor,  who,  it  appears,  had  a  monopoly  of  the  Indian 
trade,  and  desired  that  his  interests  should  not  suffer  loss  ; 
whereupon,  Bacon,  having  been  speedily  joined  by  several 
hundred  of  the  planters,  went  to  the  war  unauthorized.  The 
governor's  Indian  monopoly  partly  explains  why,  prior  to  the 
outbreak,  a  more  friendly  course  had  been  pursued  toward  the 
natives. 

Berkeley  proclaimed  Bacon  and  his  followers,  rebels,  and 
ordered  troops  to  go  after  them ;  but  in  the  meantime,  the 
counties  on  the  lower  York  and  James,  declaring  themselves 
in  sympathy  with  the  insurgents,  the  governor  was  obliged  to 
yield.  A  new  assembly  was  called,  to  which  Bacon,  who  had 
successfully  encountered  the  Indians,  was  appointed  a  burgess. 
A  code  of  liberal  laws  was  framed  which  was  known  as 
"  Bacon's  Laws";  the  right  of  suffrage  was  restored  to  all 
the  freemen,  and  the  taxes  and  emoluments  were  curtailed ;  but, 
the  young  leader  not  receiving  the  commission  which  Berkeley 
had  promised,  summoned  nearly  500  of  his  adherents  to 
Jamestown,  and  forced  the  governor  finally  to  accede  to  his 
demand.  These  acts  of  revolution,  which  were  a  sort  of  ante- 


1676]  BACON'S  REBELLION.  173 

type  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  transpired  in  the  summer  of 
1676,  just  a  century  prior  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence. 

Bacon  once  more  started  out  against  the  Indians  ;  but  he 
had  not  been  gone  many  days,  when  Berkeley  again  proclaimed 
him  a  traitor.  DRUMMOND,  who  had  been  governor  of  the  North 
Carolina  settlements,  and  Lawrence,  a  pupil  of  Oxford,  brought 
the  news  to  Bacon  ;  who,  mustering  his  adherents  in  the  lower 
counties,  obliged  the  governor  to  retire  across  the  bay  to  the 
Eastern  Shore.  By  liberal  promises  of  Jnoney  and  plunder, 
Berkeley  raised  a  force  of  nearly  a  thousand  men  of  Accomac, 
with  whom  he  proceeded,  in  15  ships  and  sloops,  up  the  James 
river  to  the  little  capital.  Bacon  had  already  defeated  the 
Indians  a  second  time,  and  disbanded  his  men,  when  he  learnt 
of  the  arrival  of  the  fleet ;  but  without  loss  of  time,  his  fol 
lowers  were  again  in  arms  and  moving  against  Jamestown. 

After  a  short  siege  the  governor  and  the  royalists  deserted 
the  town,  and  embarking  on  the  fleet  at  night,  sailed  down 
the  river;  while  Bacon  and  his  men,  in  order  that  their  oppo 
nents  might  be  debarred  from  the  protection  which  the  build 
ings  afforded,  set  them  on  fire — Drummond  and  Lawrence,  it 
is  said,  applying  the  torch  to  their  own  dwellings.  The  newly- 
erected  state-house  and  the  little  brick  chapel,  the  first  built 
in  the  colony,  were  burnt  with  the  rest.  The  voyager  who 
now  passes  by  the  Jamestown  peninsula,  will  notice,  close  to 
the  river's  bank,  one  end  of  the  chapel,  with  its  arched  win 
dow,  still  standing :  it  is  all  that  remains  of  the  earliest  set 
tlement  in  Virginia.  Upon  the  destruction  of  this  place,  the 
royalist  troops  who  were  marching  against  Bacon,  decided  to 
join  his  cause  in  a  body ;  but  before  that  leader  could  carry 
out  his  design  of  subduing  the  Berkeley  party  across  the  bay, 
he  was  seized  with  a  miasmatic  disorder,  which  proved  fatal. 

The  insurgents,  having  lost  their  leader,  were  not  able  to 
cope  with  Beverly,  who  took  the  part  of  the  governor.  Over 
twenty  of  Bacon's  adherents,  among  whom  was  Drummond, 


I74  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES,  [1680 

were  hung.  And  although  a  proclamation  arrived  in  the 
meantime  from  Charles  the  Second,  that  a  pardon  should  be 
granted  to  all  the  insurgents  except  Bacon,  yet  Berkeley  refused 
to  discontinue  the  executions,  until  finally  the  assembly  voted 
him  an  address,  petitioning  that  no  more  blood  should  be 
spilled.  The  governor,  whose  conduct  had  been  greatly  cen 
sured,  very  soon  returned  to  England ;  but  he  died  shortly 
after  his  arrival  there,  before  he  had  had  an  opportunity  to 
secure  an  audience  with  the  king. 

Ardent,  talented  and  brave-spirited  though  Nathaniel  Bacon 
appears  to  have  been,  yet  we  cannot  applaud  either  his  plan 
for  overcoming  the  Indian  difficulty,  or  his  treatment  of  the 
arrogant  and  avaricious  Berkeley.  The  wrongs  which  had 
stirred  the  Indian  heart  to  aggression,  were  greater  by  far  than 
wefe  those  of  the  settlers,  and  undoubtedly  a  just  and  lenient 
spirit  would  have  led  to  reconciliation,  because  never  has  it 
failed  when  it  has  been  fairly  tried.  The  war  resulted  in  great 
loss  of  life,  and  an  unjust  decree  of  slavery  directed  against 
the  Indians,  besides  the  perpetuation  in  their  minds  of  a  false 
conception  of  the  religion  which  the  whites  had  so  dishonored. 

Although  Bacon  appeared  as  the  champion  of  the  majority 
of  the  planters  against  aristocratic  assumption,  yet  what  good 
was  accomplished  that  could  not  have  been  better  secured  by 
a  dignified  and  united  presentation  of  their  grievances  to  the 
attention  of  the  assembly?  To  sum  up  the  untoward  result 
in  a  sentence  :  Bacon  was  dead — twenty-three  of  his  adherents 
had  been  hung — Jamestown  was  in  ashes — a  liberal  charter 
had  been  withheld  by  the  king — the  old  laws  and  burdensome 
levies  were  renewed — and  the  right  of  franchise  again  confined 
to  the  freeholders. 

Lord  Culpeper  having  purchased  Arlington's  share  of  the 
grant  of  Virginia  and  received  from  the  king  a  commission  as 
governor  for  life,  appeared  in  the  province  in  1680.  Although 
granted  a  salary  of  ^2000,  he  came  to  gather  the  perquisites 


1683]  LORD    CULPEPER.  !75 

which  his  property  might  afford,  rather  than  to  seek  the 
colony's  prosperity.  One,  John  Buckner,  having  brought  a 
printing-press  to  the  colony  (1682),  imprinted  the  laws  passed 
by  the  assembly ;  but  being  called  to  account  by  Culpeper 
and  his  council,  and  required  to  wait  until  the  king's  wish 
could  be  heard,  he  was  informed  that  the  royal  instructions 
were,  to  positively  forbid  the  press  to  be  used. 

The  condition  of  Virginia  at  that  time  was  one  of  much 
distress.  The  over-production  of  tobacco,  by  reason  of  the 
increasing  number  of  slaves,  had  reduced  the  price  of  the 
staple  to  a  penny  per  pound.  The  navigation  acts,  which 
operated  against  the  interests  of  the  colony,  might  have  had 
their  evils  diminished  by  the  home-building  of  vessels,  which 
would  not  have  been  liable  to  duty,  and  thus  an  increased 
production  of  corn  in  place  of  tobacco,  for  export,  would  have 
been  required.  But  this  measure  was  not  adopted.  A  regi 
ment  of  soldiers  had  been  sent  over  by  the  king,  and,  being 
quartered  upon  the  inhabitants,  caused  grievous  complaints  on 
account  of  the  burden  they  entailed  ;  while  the  troops  them 
selves  suffered  greatly  from  sickness.  Culpeper,  upon  his  re 
turn  to  England  in  1683,  sold  his  patent  to  the  crown  for  a 
pdnsion,  and  a  successor  was  appointed  to  the  governorship  in 
the  person  of  LORD  HOWARD  OF  EFFINGHAM. 


CHAPTER    XIII. 
CAROLINA. 
1663—1688. 


THE    PALATINE   PROPRIETORS   AND    THEIR   MODEL   CONSTITU 
TION. 

To  eight  courtier-noblemen,  King  Charles  II.  of  England 
granted  all  the  territory  south  of  Virginia  as  far  as  the  latitude 
of  Port  Royal ;  a  country,  nevertheless,  which  the  Spaniards 
claimed  as  a  portion  of  the  province  of  Florida,  being  held 
by  the  castle  of  St.  Augustine  as  an  appendage  of  the  Spanish 
crown.  Of  the  eight  proprietors,  several  were  men  well-known 
in  the  political  arena :  General  Monk,  now  become  Duke  of 
Albemarle,  the  leader  of  the  parliamentary  party  which  re 
stored  the  crown  to  the  House  of  Stuart ;  Lord  Clarendon, 
prime  minister  of  the  king ;  Lord  Ashley  Cooper,  Earl  of 
Shaftesbury,  the  wealthy  and  intellectual  chancellor ;  and  Sir 
William  Berkeley,  governor  of  Virginia.  Beside  these,  there 
were  Lord  John  Berkeley  and  Lord  Craven ;  Sir  George  Car- 
teret  and  Sir  John  Colleton.  This  grant  of  CAROLINA  was 
made  in  1663,  three  years  after  the  king's  restoration. 

Half-a-century  before  the  time  of  the  royal  grant,  and  soon 
after  Jamestown  was  settled,  the  country  about  Nansemond 
river  (an  affluent  of  the  James)  began  to  be  inhabited ;  and 
from  there  a  number  of  parties  proceeded  down  the  Chowan, 
and  settled  near  its  confluence  with  Albemarle  Sound.  Yet  it 
was  not  until  1662,  when  GEORGE  DURANT  purchased  from 
176 


1 665]  THE  PALATINE  PROPRIETORS.  177 

the  Indians  a  tract  on  the  sound,  and  when  Quakers,  driven 
from  Virginia,  began  to  bend  their  steps  thither,  that  the 
settlements  attracted  much  attention.  Berkeley,  as  governor 
of  Virginia,  and  at  the  same  time  as  one  of  the  Carolina  pro 
prietors,  was  authorized  to  institute  a  government  for  the 
Albemarle  plantations,  and  accordingly  appointed  to  the  ex 
ecutive  post  WILLIAM  DRUMMOND,  a  Scotchman,  afterward 
so  prominent  in  Bacon's  Rebellion.  As  Drummond  was  a 
man  who  believed  in  popular  representation,  an  assembly  was 
readily  formed,  and  the  few  settlers  permitted  to  manage  their 
affairs  without  unnecessary  dictation. 

More  than  a  hundred  miles  to  the  southward,  near  the 
mouth  of  Cape  Fear  river,  a  colony  from  New  England  also 
established  itself  in  1660,  having  obtained  the  title  to  a  small 
tract  of  land  by  purchase  from  the  Indians.  But  the  soil 
around  Cape  Fear  was  neither  suitable  for  grazing  nor  for 
agriculture,  for  which  purposes  the  settlers  had  designed  to 
use  it;  and  hence,  after  being  obliged  to  solicit  help  from 
Massachusetts,  they  in  a  few  years  deserted  the  place. 

Strangely  enough  the  same  unattractive  locality  was  selected 
in  1665  by  planters  from  Barbadoes,  who  purchased  a  tract 
32  miles  square,  from  the  Indians,  quite  near  the  New  Eng 
land  settlement.  SIR  JOHN  YEAMANS,  one  of  the  planters, 
was  appointed  by  the  proprietors  governor  of  the  province  of 
"Clarendon,"  which  extended  from  Cape  Fear  to  the  San 
Matheo  or  Port  Royal.  The  colonists  employed  themselves 
in  making  boards,  shingles  and  staves,  which  they  shipped  to 
the  Barbadoes ;  but  although  the  place  flourished  for  awhile, 
having  a  population  of  several  hundred  persons,  it  did  not 
continue  a  permanent  settlement. 

About  the  time  that  Yeamans  received   his  appointment 

(1665),  the  titled  proprietors  obtained  a  new  charter  from  the 

king,  extending  the  bounds  of  their  grant  so  as  to  include 

the  Chowan  river  and  Albemarle  settlements  on  the  north, 

H* 


1 78  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1665 

and  Spanish  St.  Augustine  on  the  south,  and  reaching  back 
all  the  way  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  privileges  at  the  same 
time  conferred,  were  as  ample  as  the  proprietors  could  have 
possibly  desired — giving  them  power  to  establish  manors  and 
baronies  and  orders  of  nobility — to  levy  troops,  build  fortifi 
cations,  and  make  war :  in  short,  a  feudal  seignory  subject  to, 
but  not  controlled  by,  the  crown. 

To  frame  a  constitution  in  accordance  with  and  worthy 
these  high  powers  and  privileges,  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury,  the 
most  able  of  the  eight  corporators,  called  to  his  assistance  the 
philosopher,  JOHN  LOCKE.  The  predilections  of  Shaftesbury 
and  Locke,  both  strongly  favored  the  prerogatives  of  the  no 
bility.  Professing  to  believe  that  in  the  potent  hands  of  the 
aristocracy,  the  liberties  of  the  people  at  large  would  be  best 
guarded  against  kingly  assumption  on  the  one  hand,  and 
plebeian  intermeddling  on  the  other,  these  law-makers  were 
clearly  no  friends  to  equality  of  representation,  which  is  the 
only  assurance  of  stability  of  government.  The  powerful 
intellect  of  Locke  studied  and  sifted  the  methods  of  the  past 
to  construct  his  ideal ;  but  the  ideal,  when  worked  into  shape, 
was  altogether  impracticable,  and  the  New  World  would  not 
receive  it.  Understanding  the  views  of  class-privilege  enter 
tained  by  Locke  and  Shaftesbury,  we  have  the  key  by  which 
to  interpret  the  "model  constitution." 

The  immense  extent  of  territory  comprised  in  the  grant 
was  to  be  divided  into  counties,  each  containing  750  square 
miles.  To  each  county  there  was  to  be  assigned  an  earl  or 
landgrave  and  two  barons,  who  together  were  to  possess  one- 
fifth  of  the  land  in  the  county;  another  fifth  was  to  be  re 
served  for  the  lords-proprietors  ;  and  the  remaining  three-fifths 
might  be  held  by  the  people  or  lords  of  manors.  The  right 
of  franchise  could  be  held  only  by  freeholders,  possessing  at 
least  50  acres;  the  minor  tenants,  whose  limited  means 
obliged  them  to  pay  a  rent,  not  only  had  no  right  to  vote, 


1 66s]      QUAKER   SETTLEMENTS   OF  ALBEMARLE.       ijg 

but  were  placed  under  the  "jurisdiction  of  their  lord,  with 
out  appeal."  The  executive  and  judicial  powers  were  entirely 
controlled  by  the  proprietors,  the  eldest  of  the  eight  being 
the  president,  with  the  title  of  Palatine.  The  grand  council 
or  parliament  of  fifty,  admitted  14  commons,  but  these,  to  be 
eligible,  must  each  own  at  least  500  acres;  the  rest  of  the 
body  was  to  be  made  up  of  the  proprietors  (or  their  deputies), 
the  landgraves,  and  the  barons.  Thus  the  legislative  power 
was  also,  by  this  device,  placed  out  of  the  reach  of  the  people 
at  large.  All  sects  were  to  be  tolerated,  but  it  was  added, 
the  following  year,  that  the  English  Church  should  be  the 
national  religion,  and  be  maintained  by  the  colonial  grants. 
We  will  presently  see  what  reception  the  people  in  the  wilder 
ness  gave  to  this  "  Grand  Model,"  as  it  was  derisively  called. 

THE   QUAKER    SETTLEMENTS   OF   ALBEMARLE. 

While  the  constitution  for  Carolina  was  being  thus  labo 
riously  marked  out,  the  Albemarle  colonists  were  pursuing  the 
peaceful  tenor  of  their  way,  and  craving  no  more  elaborate 
form  of  government  than  the  plain  and  sensible  one  which 
they  already  possessed,  to  wit,  a  worthy  governor  (STEVENS), 
his  council,  and  an  assembly  of  delegates  chosen  by  the  free 
holders.  They  made  but  few  laws,  which  sufficed  their  simple 
requirements,  while  the  cost  of  legislation  was  on  an  econom 
ical  basis,  adapted  to  their  limited  resources.  Little  need 
then,  for  them,  of  earls,  barons,  lords  of  the  manor  and  a 
grand  parliament,  with  a  long  train  of  onerous  expenses  ! 
The  colonists  were  a  loyal,  orderly  and  law-abiding  people, 
but  they  resolutely  refused  to  receive  the  new  form  of  gov 
ernment,  inasmuch  as  the  proprietors  had  stipulated  that  the 
existing  one  should  not  be  interfered  with. 

The  Quakers — or,  to  call  them  by  their  proper  name,  the 
Society  of  Friends — were  the  first  to  organize  meetings  for 


I  So  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1683 

worship  in  Carolina.  William  Edmundson,  one  of  their 
ministers,  seeking  his  exiled  brethren  on  the  Chowan,  records 
that  "he  met  with  a  tender  people"  there,  who  gladly  re 
ceived  the  truth,  and  that  a  quarterly  meeting  was  established 
among  them.  Later  in  the  same  year  (1672)  it  is  related  in 
the  Journal  of  that  faithful  minister,  GEORGE  Fox,  how  he 
also,  coming  down  from  Virginia,  held  a  meeting  "  about  four 
miles  from  Nancemum  water,  which  was  very  precious;"  that 
after  this  the  "way  to  Carolina  grew  worse,  being  much  of  it 
plashy,  and  pretty  full  of  great  bogs  and  swamps;"  and  that 
on  his  arrival  he  was  kindly  entertained  by  the  governor  and 
others,  and  satisfactory  meetings  were  held,  "the  people 
being  generally  tender  and  open."  The  neighboring  Indians 
also  were  visited  and  the  Gospel  of  Peace  proclaimed  to 
them. 

Upon  the  death  of  Governor  Stevens  (1672),  renewed 
efforts  were  made  by  the  proprietors  to  introduce  the  consti 
tution  and  to  enforce  the  obnoxious  navigation  acts.  Incon 
siderable  as  was  the  commerce  between  the  Albemarle  planta 
tions  and  New  England,  the  traders  of  the  latter  country 
were  unjustly  obliged  to  pay  a  duty  which  was  not  required 
of  the  British  merchant  or  ship-owner.  The  pacific  princi 
ples  of  most  of  the  first  North  Carolina  settlers,  would  have 
led  them  to  seek  redress  in  a  more  quiet  way  than  that  which 
was  actually  adopted  ;  but  by  the  influence  of  the  New  Eng- 
landers  and  of  refugees  from  Virginia,  who  hurried  into  the 
colony  after  the  rebellion  of  1676,  the  collector  of  customs 
and  the  deputies  appointed  by  the  proprietors,  were  impris 
oned,  and  the  old  government  restored — happily  without 
bloodshed. 

Five  years  of  partial  tranquillity  had  prevailed  at  Albemarle, 
when,  in  1683,  arrived  SETH  SOTHEL,  who  had  purchased  the 
right  of  Lord  Clarendon,  one  of  the  proprietors,  and  had  also 
been  appointed  governor  by  that  body.  But  Sothel  found  that 


4  /v 

c     r'/l>'s/?-) 

1670]  THE  SETTLERS  AT  CHAftlESTOwIl^f  ,  i$i 

Si£-^_    /lAr/4 

the  constitution  and  the  navigation  act  continued  tcHae^as^ 
obnoxious  to  the  colonists  as  before,  and  having  no  means  to 
enforce  them,  he  turned  his  attention  to  his  own  private  gain, 
exacting  unjust  fees,  seeking  to  absorb  the  Indian  traffic,  and, 
by  other  rapacious  devices,  showing  himself  unfitted  for  the 
executive  office.  At  the  end  of  five  years,  the  colonists  con 
cluded  that  Sothel  had  abided  with  and  misgoverned  them  as 
long  as  patience  would  allow ;  whereupon  they  deposed  and 
banished  him,  and  appealed  to  the  proprietors  for  better  treat 
ment  at  their  hands. 


THE   SETTLERS  AT  CHARLESTON. 

Early  in  1670  came  to  Carolina  the  first  colony  sent  out  by 
the  proprietaries :  three  ship-loads  of  emigrants  under  WIL 
LIAM  SAYLE,  the  appointed  governor,  and  Joseph  West,  the 
company's  commercial  agent.  They  entered  at  first  the  broad 
haven  of  Port  Royal,  where,  more  than  a  century  before,  the 
French  fleet  of  Ribault  had  anchored  ;  but  after  a  short  delay 
there,  they  again  made  sail,  and  entered  that  fine  harbor 
sixty  miles  to  the  northward,  which  receives  the  waters  of 
the  Ashley  and  Cooper  rivers.  Those  streams  were  then  so 
named  in  honor  of  the  Earl  of  Shaftesbury.  On  the  penin 
sula  formed  by  their  confluence,  but  upon  the  rising  ground 
some  distance  back  from  the  point,  the  colonists  selected  the 
site  for  their  town.  Ten  years  elapsed  before  the  point  itself 
was  definitely  chosen  as  being  much  better  adapted  for  the 
requirements  of  their  commercial  city,  which  they  named 
CHARLESTON. 

The  colonists  having  quickly  to  decide  as  to  their  plan  of 
government,  quietly  ignored  the  Model  as  unsuitable,  and 
chose  Sir  John  Yeamans,  of  Barbadoes,  but  latterly  from 
Cape  Fear,  as  their  governor,  together  with  twenty  delegates 
to  form  an  assembly.  The  council  was  composed  of  ten 

16 


1 82  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1684 

members,  chosen  equally  by  the  people  and  the  proprietors. 
The  government,  therefore,  was  pretty  fairly  representative ; 
but  Yeamans  did  not  execute  his  trust  to  the  satisfaction  of 
either  party.  It  is  to  him  that  the  reproach  attaches  of  bring 
ing  African  slaves  from  Barbadoes.  The  dusky  form  of  the 
negro  bondsman  was  beheld  at  the  very  founding  of  the  Pal 
metto  State ;  and,  since  the  climate  was  well  adapted  to  the 
temperament  of  the  race,  they  were  imported  much  more 
rapidly  into  Carolina  than  they  had  been  into  the  colonies 
to  the  northward. 

The  Cavaliers,  who  scorned  submission  to  a  form  of  gov 
ernment  which  threatened  to  deprive  them  of  any  one  of  their 
rights,  did  not  scruple  to  establish  a  usage  that  crushed  as  with 
an  iron  heel  every  right  of  the  African.  Thus,  there  was  one 
clause  of  the  Model  which  found  ready  entrance,  to  wit,  that 
"  every  freeman  of  Carolina  shall  have  absolute  power  and 
authority  over  his  negro  slaves,  of  what  opinion  and  religion 
soever."  Their  inconsistency  in  this  respect,  was  akin  to  that 
of  the  Puritan  magistrates  in  the  matter  of  religious  intoler 
ance.  As  to  the  Indians,  who  were  principally  clans  of  the 
Catawba  tribe,  they  were  treated  even  worse  than  in  Virginia; 
for,  being  incited  to  war  with  each  other,  the  colonists  obtained 
possession  of  the  captives  and  sold  them  as  slaves  to  the  West 
Indies. 

The  mild  climate  of  South  Carolina  early  attracted  emigra 
tion  from  various  quarters  :  Dissenters  from  England — Scotch 
Presbyterians  and  Irish  Catholics — Dutch  Reformed  from  New 
York  and  from  Holland — Calvinist  Huguenots  from  France. 
The  first  company  of  the  Scotch  comprised  a  few  families 
under  Lord  Cardross,  who,  in  1684,  settled  at  Port  Royal; 
but  the  Spaniards  claiming  that  section  as  a  dependency  of 
St.  Augustine,  forced  the  immigrants  to  depart,  and  totally 
destroyed  their  settlement.  The  HUGUENOTS,  however,  now 
flocked  to  Carolina  in  large  numbers. 


1 686]  HUGUENOTS  IN  CAROLINA.  183 

The  Edict  of  Nantes  had  for  eighty  years  protected  in  their  rights 
the  Protestants  of  France;  but  when,  in  1685,  Louis  XIV.  suc 
cumbed  to  the  papal  influence  and  revoked  the  edict,  the  Hugue 
nots  began  at  once  to  abandon  the  kingdom.  This  was  a  result  by 
no  means  desired  by  the  king.  He  professed  to  have  at  heart  the 
conversion  of  all  his  dissenting  subjects,  thousands  of  whom,  indeed, 
met  death,  on  the  gibbet,  the  rack  and  at  the  stake,  as  the  reward  of 
their  steadfastness.  Over  half-a-million  fugitives  made  their  way 
to  other  countries,  principally  to  Germany  and  England,  and  many 
of  them  being  skilled  artisans,  as  well  as  industrious  and  peaceable 
citizens,  their  loss  was  not  a  light  one  to  France.  Of  those  who 
crossed  the  Atlantic,  some  settled  in  New  York  and  New  England, 
but  Carolina  received  the  greater  number.  On  the  Cooper  and  the 
Santee  rivers  were  their  first  habitations  erected. 

Meanwhile,  Yeamans,  who  remained  chief  magistrate  but  a 
short  period,  was  succeeded  (1674)  by  JOSEPH  WEST,  who 
held  the  office  nine  years.  As  in  the  Albemarle  settlement, 
the  same  questions  as  to  the  proprietaries'  rights  and  the  navi 
gation  acts,  continued  in  dispute ;  but  unlike  the  men  of 
Albemarle,  the  Cavaliers  and  the  governor  were  not  them 
selves  a  just-dealing  people.  Not  only  did  they  sell  captive 
Indians  as  slaves,  sending  them  from  their  homes  to  a  life 
long  bondage  in  the  Caribbean  isles,  but  they  also  connived 
with  the  buccaneers  who  depredated  upon  the  Spanish  ports 
and  commerce.  Had  they  been  good  neighbors  to  the  Span 
iards,  and  refused  intercourse  with  the  plundering  sea-robbers, 
it  is  not  likely  that  Port  Royal  would  have  been  disturbed. 
These  acts  were  displeasing  to  the  proprietors,  who  finally,  in 
1686,  made  choice  of  JAMES  COLLETON,  a  brother  of  Sir  John 
Colleton,  one  of  the  eight,  to  be  governor.  He,  they  be 
lieved,  would  be  able  to  reconcile  the  differences  between 
themselves  and  the  uneasy  colonists ;  and  having  given  him 
the  title  of  landgrave,  with  an  ample  grant  of  territory,  they 
despatched  him  upon  his  mission. 

By  the  time  the  landgrave  arrived  at  Charleston,  a  new 
"  parliament"  had  been  formed.  This  body  refusing  to  ac- 


1 84  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1688 

knowledge  the  constitution,  Colleton  at  once  excluded  the 
refractory  members ;  whereat  a  systematic  opposition  ensued 
between  the  adherents  of  the  proprietors  and  the  chief  body 
of  the  colonists.  These  imprisoned  the  governor's  secretary, 
seized  the  records,  and  refused  payment  of  their  quit-rents. 
Colleton,  in  despair,  issued  a  proclamation  of  martial  law, 
calling  out  the  militia,  but  no  one  responded  :  while,  at  a 
meeting  of  the  delegates,  the  landgrave  was  declared  dis 
franchised,  and  banished  from  the  province.  The  colonists, 
carried  away  by  the  unreasoning  heat  of  party-spirit,  were 
more  exacting  than  the  proprietors.  That  there  was  a 
practical,  as  well  as  Christian  way,  to  reconcile  even  such 
formidable  differences,  will  appear  when  we  again  recur  to 
the  condition  of  the  colony. 


CHAPTER    XIV. 

NEW    YORK—NEW   JERSEY— NEW   FRANCE. 
1664—1686. 


THE  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  DUKE  OF  YORK. 

IN  the  year  1664,  the  Duke  of  York,  who  afterward  suc 
ceeded  to  the  English  throne  as  James  the  Second,  became 
possessor  of  New  Netherland.  SIR  ROBERT  NICHOLS,  one  of 
the  three  commissioners  appointed  to  receive  the  surrender  of 
the  Dutch,  was  the  first  English  governor  of  the  newly-named 
province  of  New  York.  As  Long  Island  then  contained  a 
large  proportion  of  the  population,  an  assembly  of  deputies 
was  called  there,  to  whom  Nichols  submitted  a  body  of  laws 
for  the  colony's  government.  This  code  was  known  as  the 
"  Duke's  Laws,"  and  embodied  many  regulations  as  to  taxa 
tion,  the  established  religion  (to  which  all  had  to  contribute), 
the  courts,  the  militia  (to  which  all  males  above  the  age  of  16 
must  belong),  slaves  and  indentured  servants,  Indian  affairs, 
etc.  Owners  of  lands,  having  obtained  their  titles  from  the 
Dutch,  were  required  to  take  out  new  grants :  a  regulation 
which  secured  to  the  governor  no  little  profit  in  the  matter 
of  fees. 

Among  the  eight  proprietaries  of  Carolina,  were  Sir  George 
Carteret  and  Lord  Berkeley.  The  king's  lavish  grant  to  the 
Carolina  corporation  was  followed  a  few  months  later  by  a 
grant  from  the  Duke  of  York  to  Carteret  and  Berkeley.  It 
comprised  that  portion  of  the  old  province  of  New  Nether- 

16*  185 


1 86  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1667 

land  included  between  the  Delaware  river  on  the  west,  and 
the  lower  Hudson  and  the  ocean  on  the  east,  and  which  was 
now  called  NEW  JERSEY — in  compliment  to  Carteret,  who  had 
been  governor  of  the  small  island  of  Jersey  in  the  British  Chan 
nel.  It  is  true,  that  all  of  this  territory  had,  years  before  (in 
1634),  been  granted  to  Sir  Edmund  Ployden,  and  was  called 
by  him  New  Albion,  but  as  he  neglected  to  organize  settle 
ments,  the  grant  became  void. 

The  proprietaries,  Berkeley  and  Carteret,  made  liberal  con 
cessions  to  emigrants,  who  came  in  considerable  numbers, 
principally  Puritans,  from  Long  Island  and  New  England. 
No  quit-rent  for  the  land  was  to  be  required  from  the  settlers 
for  six  years,  that  is  to  say,  until  1670.  Elizabeth-town,  so 
named  in  honor  of  Lady  Carteret,  was  chosen  the  seat  of 
government;  and  at  Bergen,  Newark,  Shrewsbury,  and  other 
places  in  the  neighborhood  of  Raritan  and  Newark  bays,  set 
tlements  quickly  arose.  Nichols  was  much  displeased  when 
he  heard  that  the  Duke  of  York  had  given  away  the  choicest 
part  of  his  province,  and  created  a  separate  government ;  for, 
before  being  aware  of  the  transaction,  he  had  himself  per 
mitted  settlers  on  the  site  of  Elizabeth-town,  to  purchase  land 
of  the  Indians.  This  "  Elizabeth-town  Purchase,"  as  it  was 
called,  was  the  occasion  of  considerable  litigation.  PHILIP 
CARTERET,  a  kinsman  of  Sir  George  Carteret,  was  appointed 
(1665)  first  governor  of  New  Jersey. 

When  the  time  came  for  the  payment  of  the  quit-rents, 
there  was  a  general  refusal  to  accede  to  the  claim  of  the  pro 
prietaries,  many  of  the  settlers  alleging  that  it  was  sufficient 
that  they  had  already  once  paid  the  Indians  for  the  soil. 
Governor  Carteret  not  being  able  to  secure  compliance  with 
the  law,  returned  to  England.  In  the  meantime  (1667),  FRAN 
CIS  LOVELACE  had  succeeded  Nichols  as  governor  of  New 
York,  and  he  too  found  himself  thwarted  in  the  matter  of  tax- 
collecting  ;  for  the  Duke  of  York,  without  the  concurrence 


1 674]  EAST  AND    WEST  NEW  JERSEY.  187 

of  the  assembly,  having  laid  a  heavy  duty  upon  all  imports 
and  exports,  a  number  of  the  towns  sent  in  their  protest — 
but  the  paper  was  ordered  to  be  publicly  burnt. 

These  disputes,  for  the  time,  were  brought  to  an  unexpected 
termination  by  the  appearance,  in  1673,  of  a  Dutch  fleet  be 
fore  Manhattan  island ;  for  Holland  and  England  were  again 
at  war.  The  summons  to  surrender  was  readily  complied  with, 
and  the  example  as  promptly  followed  by  Long  Island,  New 
Jersey  and  the  Delaware  bay  settlements.  But  upon  the  con 
clusion  of  a  treaty  of  peace  between  the  two  kingdoms,  the 
American  colonies  were  returned  to  their  English  owners, 
having  been  little  over  a  year  in  possession  of  the  Dutch. 
Major  EDMUND  ANDROS  appeared  in  New  York  as  governor 
in  behalf  of  the  Duke  of  York. 

Andros  was  disposed  to  make  arbitrary  use  of  his  position, 
again  laying  claim  to  the  territory  between  the  Hudson  and 
Connecticut  rivers.  Not  being  successful  in  this  attempted 
invasion,  he  had  no  difficulty  in  obtaining  possession  of  the 
sparsely  settled  country  between  the  Kennebec  and  Penobscot, 
where  a  fort  was  erected,  and  the  country  called  by  the  name 
of  Cornwall.  Previously,  that  portion  of  the  present  state 
of  Maine  had  been  known  by  the  Indian  name  of  Sagadahoc, 
and  for  a  number  of  years  had  been  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
Massachusetts. 

EAST   AND   WEST   NEW  JERSEY. 

New  Jersey  had  been  ten  years  an  organized  province, 
when,  in  1674,  the  year  of  the  treaty  between  England  and 
Holland,  Berkeley  sold  his  half-share  to  EDWARD  BYLLINGE 
and  JOHN  FENWICK,  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends.  On 
the  east  of  Delaware  bay,  near  an  old  fort  of  the  Swedes, 
Fenwick  himself  established  a  colony,  and  called  the  place 
Salem.  To  avoid  troublesome  questions  of  jurisdiction,  it 
was  decided  to  divide  the  province  into  two  parts.  The  line 


1 88  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1677 

was  drawn  from  a  point  on  the  upper  Delaware  river  south- 
eastwardly  to  Little  Egg  Harbor ;  in  other  words,  from  the 
locality  of  Minisink  island  to  Tuckerton,  with  Princeton  near 
the  centre  of  the  line.  East  Jersey  thence  became  the  sep 
arate  property  of  Carteret,  and  West  Jersey  that  of  Byllinge 
and  Fenwick.  WILLIAM  PENN  was  largely  interested  in  am 
icably  arranging  the  questions  of  dispute  which  arose  between 
the  various  owners. 

Byllinge  not  being  able  to  retain  his  property,  it  was  divided 
into  shares  and  sold  for  his  benefit ;  Penn  and  other  Friends 
being  the  principal  purchasers.  Many  of  that  denomination 
emigrated  thither,  with  Thomas  Olive  and  others,  agents  for 
the  share-holders,  and  in  1677,  Burlington  on  the  Delaware, 
was  founded.  Several  years  later  (1681)  Byllinge  was  ap 
pointed  governor.  The  laws  of  the  colony  were  founded  on 
the  principle  contained  in  the  message  of  the  Quaker  pro 
prietaries  to  the  emigrants:  "We  lay  a  foundation  for  after- 
ages  to  understand  their  liberty  as  men  and  as  Christians,  that 
they  may  not  be  brought  into  bondage,  but  by  their  own 
consent ;  for  we  put  the  power  in  the  people."  The  "  Conces 
sions"  agreed  upon  between  the  proprietaries  and  the  settlers 
gave  general  satisfaction. 

A  fair  understanding  was  had  with  the  Indians  of  the  Dela 
ware  tribe.  They,  together  with  the  Minsi  or  Minisinks  of  the 
upper  Delaware  valley,  formed  the  two  chief  divisions  of  the 
Lenni-Lenape  Indians — the  latter  a  section  of  the  great  Algon 
quin  race.  And  since  the  settlers  made  no  use  of  warlike 
weapons,  peace  and  good-will  prevailed,  and  a  thriving  com 
munity  of  yeomen  soon  established  homesteads  and  meeting 
houses  in  the  wilderness  clearings. 

"  You  are  our  brothers,"  said  the  sachems,  at  the  council  in  Bur 
lington  woods  (1677),  "  and  we  will  live  like  brothers  with  you.  We 
will  have  a  broad  path  for  you  and  us  to  walk  in.  If  an  English 
man  falls  asleep  in  this  path,  the  Indian  shall  pass  him  by  and  say, 


1682]  EAST  AND    WEST  NEW  JERSEY.  189 

'  He  is  an  Englishman,  he  is  asleep,  let  him  alone.'  The  path  shall 
be  plain  ;  there  shall  not  be  in  it  a  stump  to  hurt  the  feet:'  Some 
years  before  Burlington  was  founded,  a  native  while  under  the  in 
fluence  of  ardent  spirits,  obtained  from  the  Swedes,  had  murdered 
one  of  the  settlers.  The  Indians  now  requested  an  absolute  pro 
hibition  of  the  sale  of  strong  liquors,  which  was  cheerfully  complied 
with  by  the  Friends,  who  were  anxious  to  remove  all  "  stumps,"  or 
stumbling-blocks,  from  the  Indians'  path.  New  Jersey,  to  her 
great  honor,  was  never  guilty  of  the  blood  of  the  red  men. 

In  East  Jersey,  Philip  Carteret  had  come  back  as  governor 
(1674),  and  though  some  trouble  still  continued  about  quit- 
rents,  much  more  dissatisfaction  was  caused  by  the  course  of 
Governor  Andros  of  New  York,  who  would  not  permit  vessels 
to  land  goods  in  New  Jersey  unless  they  had  first  paid  duties 
to  him,  hoping  by  that  means  to  prevent  direct  trade  with 
England.  Having  succeeded  in  enforcing  this  rule,  Andros 
even  claimed  to  have  jurisdiction  over  East  Jersey  by  virtue 
of  his  commission  from  the  Duke  of  York.  Carteret  refusing 
to  recognize  his  authority,  Andros  sent  a  squad  of  soldiers, 
who  laid  hold  of  the  governor  while  in  bed,  and  carried  him 
over  to  New  York.  In  addition  to  this,  Andros  claiming  to 
act  as  governor  of  West  Jersey,  assumed  control  over  Delaware 
bay,  and  demanded  that  duties  be  paid  by  all  vessels  entering 
those  waters.  It  becoming  necessary  to  submit  the  question 
of  authority  to  arbitrators  in  England,  it  was  their  decision 
that  the  duke  and  his  high-handed  agent  were  in  error. 

The  firm,  but  respectful  remonstrance  presented  by  the  Quaker 
proprietaries,  resulting  in  the  discontinuance  of  the  customs-tax 
and  the  relinquishment  by  the  Duke  of  York  of  all  claim  to  West 
Jersey,  exhibits  what  might  probably  have  been  accomplished  in 
Virginia  by  Nathaniel  Bacon,  had  he  used  his  fine  talents  in  that 
direction  instead  of  endeavoring  to  gain  his  end  by  the  sword. 

Upon  the  death  of  Carteret  (1682),  East  Jersey  being 
offered  for  sale,  it  became  the  property  of  an  associated  com 
pany  of  twelve  Friends,  among  whom  were  William  Penn  and 


I9o  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1685 

ROBERT  BARCLAY,  the  Apologist — the  latter  being  appointed 
governor,  although  not  residing  in  the  province.  In  Scot 
land,  the  attempt  of  the  royal  house  of  Stuart  to  establish  the 
Episcopal  religion,  had  resulted  in  a  severe  persecution  of  the 
Presbyterians,  who  were  now  eager  to  find  a  safe  asylum  from 
their  tormentors.  The  Friends,  therefore,  associating  with 
themselves  twelve  others,  mostly  Scotch  Presbyterians,  a  way 
of  escape  and  of  perfect  freedom  of  conscience  was  offered 
to  the  oppressed,  who,  in  large  numbers  embraced  the  favor 
ing  opportunity.  One  of  the  Scotch  proprietors  was  the 
EARL  OF  PERTH,  from  whom  was  named  Perth-Amboy,  at  the 
head  of  Raritan  bay — a  place  which  it  was  hoped  would 
prove  a  commercial  port  even  rivalling  New  York.  Another 
was  LORD  NEIL  CAMPBELL,  who  sent  over  a  large  colony 
(1684),  and  for  a  short  time  was  governor,  having  succeeded 
Barclay. 

Andros  having  gone  to  England  to  answer  the  complaints 
against  him  in  regard  to  usurpations  in  East  and  West  Jersey, 
THOMAS  DONGAN  was  sent  out  in  1683,  instructed  to  call  a 
representative  assembly  of  the  people  such  as  they  had  been 
clamoring  for.  Two  years  later  the  Duke  of  York,  by  the 
death  of  his  brother  Charles  II. ,  became  king  of  England, 
and,  claiming  jurisdiction  over  the  province  of  New  Jersey, 
and  desiring  to  consolidate  the  colonies,  he  annexed  it  to 
New  York.  Nevertheless,  the  right  of  the  proprietaries  to 
the  soil  remained  unimpaired. 

EXPLORATIONS   OF  THE   FRENCH  JESUITS.     MARQUETTE. 

In  chapter  ix.  an  account  was  given  of  the  establishment 
of  Jesuit  missions  among  the  Hurons,  and  of  the  ruin  that 
came  upon  that  nation  by  the  incursions  of  the  Iroquois. 
Numbers  of  the  conquered  warriors  had  been  allowed  to  join 
the  Five  Nations  who  comprised  the  Iroquois  confederacy, 


1 668]         EXPLORATIONS   OF  FRENCH  JESUITS.  191 

and  thither  again  came  the  missionaries,  seeking  them.  They 
were  not  turned  away.  But  when  in  1656,  a  colony  of  French 
from  Montreal,  established  themselves  on  the  Oswego  near 
the  country  of  the  Oneidas,  the  jealousy  of  the  Indians  was 
aroused,  and  the  settlers  and  priests  were  obliged  to  depart. 
The  Mohawks  especially,  rejoicing  in  the  mighty  weapons  of 
war  which  they  had  recently  obtained,  manifested  the  greatest 
hostility  toward  the  French  intruders;  and,  sad  to  say,  this 
revengeful  spirit  was  freely  encouraged  by  the  Dutch  colonists 
and  their  English  successors.  The  spiritual  welfare  of  the 
Indians  weighed  nothing  against  dominion  and  monopoly  of 
trade — the  prizes  which  the  whites  thirsted  for. 

The  condition  of  affairs  in  Canada  had  become  so  discour 
aging  that  the  "Company  of  New  France,"  organized  with 
such  eclat  by  Cardinal  Richelieu,  was  dissolved,  and,  in  1664 
the  French  West  India  Company,  which  had  been  formed  for 
purposes  of  trade  and  settlement  in  certain  islands  of  the 
Caribbean  sea,  was  also  intrusted  by  King  Louis  XIV.  with 
the  control  of  New  France.  A  military  force  was  at  once 
sent  over,  and  forts  constructed  at  Sorel  and  Chambly  (upon 
the  river  connecting  Lake  Champlain  with  the  St.  Lawrence), 
to  hold  the  Iroquois  in  check. 

As  an  efficient  ally  and  entering  wedge,  the  Jesuits  were 
encouraged  to  pursue  their  labors ;  and  not  they  only,  but  the 
Recollect  friars,  who,  after  a  forty  years'  exclusion,  were  now 
allowed  re-entrance.  On  the  southern  shore  of  Sault  St. 
Marie,  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior — where  Jogues  had  assem 
bled  2000  Chippeways  twenty-five  years  before — a  mission 
was  established  (1668)  by  three  adventurous  priests,  Mar- 
quette,  Allouez,  and  Dablon.  It  was  the  first  settlement  of 
the  whites  in  the  North-west.  Allouez  had  explored  the 
southern  shores  of  the  great  lake  beyond,  and  had  also  heard 
of  the  mighty  river  that  flowed  toward  the  south.  Along  the 
shores  of  Lake  Michigan,  where  Chicago,  Milwaukee  and 


I9 2  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1673 

other  populous  cities  now  stand,  friendly  visits  were  paid  to 
the  Indians  and  missionary  stations  were  planted. 

MARQUETTE,  anxious  to  reach  the  great  river,  received  offi 
cial  authority  to  undertake  the  exploration.  With  several 
companions — one  of  whom  was  JOLIET,  a  trader  from  Que 
bec — and  accompanied  by  Indian  guides,  they  entered  the 
Green  bay  of  Lake  Michigan,  and,  at  its  south-west  extremity 
passed  into  Fox  river ;  thence  by  the  chain  of  small  lakes  and 
a  narrow  portage,  they  came  to  the  Wisconsin,  down  which 
they  floated  in  their  bark  canoes  to  the  "Father  of  Waters." 
At  the  portage,  their  Indian  guides  had  deserted  them,  being 
afraid  to  risk  an  encounter  with  the  hostile  Dacotahs.  Thus, 
in  1673,  one  hundred  and  thirty-two  years  after  De  Soto  was 
buried  beneath  its  waters,  the  Mississippi  was  re-discovered 
by  the  French  Jesuits. 

Descending  the  majestic  river  nearly  200  miles,  they  landed 
at  a  village  by  the  mouth  of  a  stream,  called  by  the  Indians 
the  Moingona,  a  name  which,  by  the  French,  became  altered 
into  Des  Moines.  Thus  Marquette  and  Joliet  were  the  first 
white  men  who  trod  the  soil  of  Iowa.  Continuing  their 
course,  and  noticing  where  the  Missouri,  the  Ohio,  and  other 
large  streams  discharged  their  floods  into  the  one  mighty, 
swift-rolling  tide,  they  finally  came  to  the  mouth  of  the  Ar 
kansas.  Satisfied  that  the  Mississippi  found  its  outlet  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  yet  fearful  of  meeting  with  the  Span 
iards  in  that  quarter,  they  turned  their  canoes  up  stream. 
With  much  labor  they  ascended  as  far  as  the  mouth  of  the 
Illinois,  and,  rightly  judging  that  its  north-eastward  course 
would  bring  them  to  Lake  Michigan  by  a  more  direct  route 
than  that  of  the  Wisconsin,  they  paddled  up  the  former  stream, 
whose  headwaters  nearly  approach  the  lake.  Much  to  their 
surprise  they  had  met  with  very  few  Indians.  The  French 
occupation  of  the  Mississippi  Valley,  they  perceived,  need 
meet  with  little  opposition  from  the  children  of  the  forest. 


1 679]  LA   SALLE.  193 

LA   SALLE.     AN    IROQUOIS   WAR. 

At  the  time  of  Marquette's  and  Joliet's  discovery,  the 
COUNT  DE  FRONTENAC  was  governor-general  of  Canada. 
Near  the  eastern  extremity  of  Lake  Ontario,  on  the  Canada 
side  (where  Kingston  now  stands),  was  built,  in  1675,  Fort 
Frontenac.  Like  the  forsaken  Oswego  settlement  to  the 
south,  it  was  intended  to  serve  as  a  bulwark  against  the  Iro- 
quois.  An  enterprising  Frenchman,  by  name  LA  SALLE, 
educated  as  a  Jesuit  but  turned  fortune-hunter,  was  appointed 
to  the  command  of  this  post,  and,  as  a  condition  that  he 
should  discharge  his  duties  acceptably,  was  granted  a  large 
tract  of  land  adjacent,  and  the  sole  right  of  trade  with  the 
Five  Nations.  But  La  Salle,  whose  ardor  appeared  to  be 
quite  uncontrollable,  refused  to  be  confined  by  the  walls  of  a 
fort,  and  accordingly,  being  desirous  of  completing  the  dis 
covery  of  the  Mississippi,  he  repaired  to  France,  obtained 
the  royal  permit,  and  likewise  the  monopoly  of  trade  in 
buffalo  skins. 

Elated  at  his  success,  La  Salle  returned  to  Fort  Frontenac, 
and,  with  some  assistants  and  supplies,  passed  up  Lake  Onta 
rio  (1678),  and  around  Niagara  Falls  into  Lake  Erie.  Near 
where  Buffalo  now  stands,  the  little  bark  "  Griffin"  was  built, 
the  pioneer  of  all  the  modern  craft  on  those  inland  seas. 
Accompanied  by  Tonti,  the  lieutenant  of  his  company,  by 
HENNEPIN,  a  priest,  and  several  Recollect  friars,  La  Salle 
sailed  westward  in  the  summer  of  1679,  passed  through  the 
Strait  of  Detroit  and  Lake  St.  Clair  into  Lake  Huron  ;  thence 
northward,  the  length  of  the  latter,  to  the  Strait  of  Mack 
inaw.  Here  was  the  mission-station  from  which  Marquette 
had  started.  La  Salle  kept  on  by  Marquette's  route  to  Green 
bay,  where  the  Griffin,  laden  with  furs,  was  sent  back,  with 
orders  to  return  quickly  with  supplies,  to  the  south  end  of 
Lake  Michigan. 

i  17 


194  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1684 

Unfortunately,  the  Griffin  was  wrecked.  La  Salle,  in  the 
meantime,  had  gone  to  the  appointed  rendezvous  and  built 
there  a  trading-post.  Weary  of  waiting  for  the  vessel,  of 
the  disaster  to  which  he  as  yet  knew  nothing,  he  and  his  men 
continued  on  their  course  to  the  Illinois  river,  and  below 
the  present  Peoria  built  a  second  fort,  called  Crevecceur. 
From  here  La  Salle  with  but  three  attendants  made  his  way 
back  to  Fort  Frontenac,  in  order  to  hasten  the  forwarding  of 
supplies,  leaving  instructions  with  Hennepin  to  explore  the 
headwaters  of  the  Mississippi.  Hennepin  and  a  companion 
accordingly  descended  the  Illinois  to  its  outlet ;  then  ascend 
ing  the  Mississippi  as  far  as  the  Falls  of  St.  Anthony,  returned 
by  the  Wisconsin  and  Fox  river  route  to  Green  bay.  Henne 
pin,  without  reporting  himself  again  at  Fort  Crevecceur,  went 
back  to  France,  and  published  an  account  of  his  lake-and- 
river  voyages. 

When  La  Salle  returned  from  Fort  Frentenac,  he  found  the 
two  posts  at  Miami  and  Crevecceur  deserted.  The  Iroquois, 
in  addition  to  their  former  exploits,  had  recently  driven  south 
ward  the  Guyandots  and  Shawnees  of  the  Ohio  river,  leaving 
the  way  open  to  attack  the  tribes  of  the  Illinois,  and,  in  con 
sequence  of  this  war,  Tonti  and  his  men  had  fled  in  alarm 
to  Green  bay.  La  Salle,  however,  built  another  fort,  and 
having  obtained  further  assistance,  constructed  a  barge,  and 
descended  the  Mississippi  to  the  Gulf.  To  the  country  on 
both  sides  of  the  river  the  name  of  LOUISIANA  was  given,  in 
honor  of  the  reigning  French  king;  and  La  Salle,  having 
taken  formal  possession  of  the  same  for  his  royal  employer, 
returned  by  way  of  Quebec  to  France. 

Two  hundred  and  eighty  persons  joined  the  new  expedition 
which,  in  1684,  sailed  with  the  design  of  planting  a  colony 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  There  were  priests  and  sol 
diers,  farmers  and  artisans,  besides  an  ample  supply  of  food 
and  implements,  that  there  might  be  no  delay  in  establishing 


1684]  AN  IKOQUOIS    WAR.  195 

homes  and  in  beginning  life  in  the  New  World  under  happy 
auspices.  But  sorrowful  was  the  actual  result  :  for,  the  voy 
agers  having  missed  the  entrance  of  the  river,  passed  to  the 
westward,  after  a  futile  search,  and  landed  somewhere  on  the 
Texas  coast,  where  they  built  a  fort.  Having  vainly  en 
deavored  to  reach  the  Mississippi  by  land,  at  last  La  Salle, 
with  but  sixteen  men,  took  up  his  march  for  Canada,  leaving 
the  rest  of  the  survivors,  only  twenty  in  number,  at  the  fort. 
In  a  dispute  or  mutiny,  La  Salle  was  murdered  by  some  of  his 
men,  a  few  only  of  whom  were  finally  found  by  Tonti,  who 
had  descended  the  Mississippi  in  search  of  the  commander. 
The  men  who  had  been  left  at  the  fort  probably  perished,  for 
nothing  was  heard  of  them  afterward. 

While  these  events  were  transpiring  in  the  west,  the  French 
in  Canada  had  become  involved  in  a  war  with  the  Five  Na 
tions.  At  a  council  held  at  Albany  in  1684,  those  tribes  had 
been  met  by  Governors  Effingham  of  Virginia,  and  Dongan, 
of  New  York,  and^Sving  professed  peace  for  the  English, 
they  were  then  counselled  not  to  treat  the  French  also  as 
brethren  and  Christians,  but  to  let  them  feel  the  full  weight 
of  their  enmity.  Hence,  when  a  messenger  arrived  imme 
diately  afterward  from  DE  LA  BARRE,  the  French  governor- 
general,  his  complaints  were  not  heeded. 

De  la  Barre,  with  about  1500  French  and  Indians,  now 
crossed  the  east  end  of  Lake  Ontario,  and  disembarking,  ad 
vanced  into  the  country  of  the  Onondagas — the  central  tribe 
of  the  Five  Nations.  But  his  men  were  so  wasted  by  malaria 
contracted  while  on  the  shore  of  the  lake,  that  they  were  glad 
to  make  peace  with  the  Indians,  without  venturing  the  issue 
of  a  battle.  Soon  afterward,  De  la  Barre  was  superseded  by 
DENONVILLE,  whose  army  of  French  and  allies  advanced  into 
the  country  of  the  Senecas. 

An  infamous  deed  is  connected  with  this  invasion.  Lam- 
berville,  a  French  missionary  among  the  Onondagas,  was  re- 


196  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1688 

quested  to  invite  some  of  the  Iroquois  chiefs  to  a  conference. 
The  invitation  was  trustfully  accepted ;  but  the  warriors  being 
surrounded  were  overcome,  placed  in  irons,  and  sent  to  France 
to  work  in  the  galleys.  Though  Lamberville,  the  innocent 
occasion  of  this  act  of  perfidy,  might  have  properly  looked 
for  death  at  the  hands  of  the  savages,  yet  a  chief  who  loved 
him  well,  furnished  him  with  a  guide,  by  whom  he  was  led 
away  to  a  place  of  safety. 

Denonville  and  his  troops  then  overran  the  Seneca  country, 
and  at  Niagara  constructed  a  fort,  that  the  French  might 
better  control  the  fur-trade  of  the  Great  Lakes.  But  as  soon 
as  Denonville  withdrew  from  the  interior,  the  Senecas  in  their 
turn  threatened  an  invasion ;  whereupon  the  garrison  in  alarm 
abandoned  the  fort  (1688).  The  following  year  the  Iroquois, 
burning  with  revenge,  advanced  to  Montreal,  killed  200 
persons  and  took  prisoners  as  many  more,  spreading  the  ter 
ror  of  their  name  far  up  and  down  the  St.  Lawrence.  The 
evil  deed  of  Denonville  had  produced  a  ripe  harvest  of  ruin 
and  wretchedness. 


CHAPTER   XV. 

NEW  ENGLAND    UNDER   CHARLES  II.   AND   JAMES    II. 
1660 — 1689. 


CONNECTICUT   AND   RHODE   ISLAND. 

A  NUMBER  of  those  judges  who  had  condemned  Charles 
the  First  to  death,  and  who  were  known  thereafter  as  the 
Regicides,  were,  at  the  Restoration,  apprehended  and  hung. 
Others  of  them  sought  safety  in  flight.  Three  of  these, 
Whalley,  Goffe  and  Dixwell,  escaped  to  New  England.  Dix- 
well  settled  at  New  Haven,  and  was  not  disturbed;  but 
Whalley  and  Goffe,  for  whose  apprehension  large  rewards  had 
been  offered,  were  hotly  pursued  from  one  place  of  refuge  to 
another,  by  Indians  as  well  as  by  the  English.  Sometimes 
they  lodged  in  houses,  sometimes  in  the  forest,  in  clefts  of 
the  rock  and  in  caves,  until  at  last  they  were  offered  shelter 
at  the  little  hamlet  of  Hadley,  in  the  valley  of  the  Connec 
ticut,  near  the  base  of  Mount  Holyoke. 

The  younger  Winthrop  was  chosen  (1662)  by  the  Connec 
ticut  colonists  to  obtain  from  the  new  king  a  charter.  He 
was  well  adapted  for  the  important  service,  being  a  man  of 
much  intelligence,  of  amiable  address  and  gentle  manners, 
who  in  his  younger  days  had  travelled  extensively  in  Europe, 
seeking  the  society  of  men  of  learning  and  of  piety.  Subse 
quently,  as  the  founder  of  a  State  in  the  New  World,  he  had 
given  proof  of  his  liberality  of  heart  by  refusing  to  assent  to 
the  persecution  of  the  Quakers,  begging  of  the  other  magis< 

17*  197 


198  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1664 

trates  that  they  should  beware  of  shedding  the  blood  of  those 
who  were  sufferers  for  conscience'  sake.  We  have  also  seen, 
(p.  134),  that  mainly  by  his  mediation  the  occupation  of  New 
Netherland  by  the  English  in  1664,  was  accomplished  with 
out  strife,  and  the  rights  of  residents  fully  protected.  For  his 
services  in  securing  to  Connecticut  so  great  a  boon  as  a  char 
ter  which  conferred  all  the  privileges  of  self-government  they 
desired,  the  grateful  inhabitants  annually  elected  him  their 
governor  for  the  space  of  fourteen  years. 

Notwithstanding  some  opposition  and  clashing  of  interests 
at  first,  the  New  Haven  settlements,  by  the  able  and  concili 
atory  endeavors  of  Winthrop,  became  merged  (1664)  with  the 
larger,  Connecticut  colony;  and  henceforth,  as  one  State  and 
under  one  charter,  they  progressed  happily  together.  The 
population  steadily  increased ;  good  rulers  were  chosen  ;  the 
interests  of  religion  and  education  were  fostered.  The  colo 
nists  were  a  people  of  frugal  habits,  chiefly  husbandmen,  who 
occupied  farms  not  too  extensive  to  be  well  cultivated  ;  and, 
inasmuch  as  the  power  of  government  was  under  their  own 
control,  the  expenses  of  its  administration  were  regulated  so 
as  not  to  become  a  burden.  They  were  fortunately  exempt 
from  the  high-proprietary  system  of  Carolina  and  Virginia, 
which  was  the  occasion  of  so  much  discontent  in  those  prov 
inces.  .  The  whole  annual  expenditure  of  the  Connecticut 
government  was  not  equal  to  the  salary  exacted  by  Berkeley 
alone  for  his  bad  rulership  of  the  Virginia  planters. 

Rhode  Island  was  equally  successful  with  Connecticut,  in 
obtaining  from  King  Charles  a  liberal  charter;  and  it  was 
similarly  fortunate  in  having  good  men  to  represent  its  cause  to 
royalty.  Roger  Williams  and  John  Clarke  of  Rhode  Island, 
were,  like  Winthrop  of  Connecticut,  fully  persuaded  that  any 
infringement  upon  the  rights  of  conscience  was  certainly  not 
pleasing  in  the  Divine  sight.  The  following  is  the  clause  in 
the  charter — obtained  in  1663  by  Williams  and  Clarke — which 


1671]  CONNECTICUT  AND  RHODE  ISLAND.  199 

affirms  equality  of  religious  rights:  "No  person  within  the 
said  colony,  at  any  time  hereafter,  shall  be  any  wise  molested, 
punished,  disquieted,  or  called  in  question,  for  any  difference 
in  opinion  in  matters  of  religion ;  every  person  may  at  all 
times  freely  and  fully  enjoy  his  own  judgment  and  conscience 
in  matters  of  religious  concernments." 

In  1671,  eight  years  after  the  charter  had  been  obtained, 
one  of  its  provisions  was  seriously  infringed  by  the  passage 
of  a  law  by  the  assembly,  declaring  that  any  one  who  should 
speak  at  a  town  meeting  against  the  payment  of  certain  assess 
ments,  would  be  liable  to  a  severe  penalty.  In  the  next  year, 
George  Fox,  who,  in  pursuance  of  a  religious  concern  had 
come  from  England,  happened  to  be  in  Rhode  Island.  It 
was  just  previous  to  that  visit  to  Nansemond  and  Albemarle 
which  has  already  been  spoken  of.  The  blessings  of  a  good 
government,  and  the  duty  of  well-intentioned  people  to  pro 
vide  the  same,  were  truths  very  clear  to  the  mind  of  the 
sturdy  Quaker ;  for  nothing  could  be  plainer  than  that  if  the 
wicked  and  the  unjust  were  allowed  to  rule,  crime  would  of 
necessity  increase,  and  souls  be  lost  at  a  faster  rate  than  the 
agencies  for  good  could  save  them.  Hence  Friends  were  ad 
monished  by  Fox  to  be  diligent  in  securing  "guards  against 
oppression,"  and  in  instructing  and  supporting  all  the  people 
in  their  rights.  The  election  resulted  in  the  choice  of  magis 
trates  opposed  to  the  obnoxious  law,  and  in  consequence  the 
former  freedom  of  debate  was  restored. 

Although  not  politicians  by  choice,  yet  the  necessity  laid  upon 
them  through  a  sense  of  duty,  appears  to  have  brought  the  Friends 
of  those  days  frequently  into  prominence  in  civil  life.  On  behalf 
of  liberty  of  conscience  and  enlightened  government,  William  Penn, 
a  few  years  later,  gave  advice  similar  to  that  of  George  Fox  :  "  Your 
well-being,"  he  says,  in  his  forcible  appeal  to  the  electors  of  Eng 
land,  "depends  upon  your  preservation  of  your  right  in  the  govern 
ment.  You  are  free  :  God,  and  nature,  and  the  constitution,  have 


200  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1646 

made  you  trustees  for  posterity.  Choose  men  who  will,  by  all  just 
and  legal  ways,  firmly  keep  and  zealously  promote  your  power." 
Nevertheless,  the  scruples  of  Friends  as  to  oaths  and  against  taking 
part  in  war,  have  debarred  them  for  the  most  part  from  accepting 
political  office. 


JOHN   ELIOT.     THE  PRAYING   INDIANS  OF  MASSACHUSETTS. 

John  Eliot,  who  is  also  known  in  New  England  history  by 
the  title  of  the  "  Apostle  to  the  Indians,"  was  educated  at 
an  English  university,  where  he  manifested  a  special  fondness 
for  the  study  of  the  languages — a  disposition  of  mind  which 
greatly  influenced  his  future  pursuits.  Coming  to  Boston  but 
a  year  or  two  after  it  was  founded,  Eliot  presently  became 
interested  in  the  welfare  and  education  of  the  Indians,  whom 
he  was  strongly  inclined  to  believe  were  the  descendants  of 
the  lost  tribes  of  Israel.  In  1646,  he  began  to  preach  to  the 
Indians  of  NONATUM,  a  village  ten  miles  west  of  Boston  ;  and 
here  was  established  the  first  civilized  Christian  settlement  of 
natives  in  the  English  colonies  of  America. 

Eliot  was  ably  assisted  in  his  work  by  Waban,  one  of  the 
chief  men  of  the  tribe.  Through  their  endeavors,  the  In 
dians  were  instructed  to  improve  the  construction  of  their 
huts ;  to  build  stone  walls  and  dig  ditches ;  and  to  abide  by 
rules  which  were  drawn  up  for  their  government.  It  was  in 
tended,  as  far  as  practicable,  to  bring  the  Indians  into  well- 
ordered  towns,  where  they  should  be  regularly  employed  in 
arts  and  trades,  and  where  a  proper  management  of  their 
civil  affairs  should  go  hand  in  hand  with  religious  improve 
ment.  Great  opposition  was  experienced  from  most  of  the 
sachems  and  the  powows  or  priests  ;  the  latter  well-knowing 
that  their  previous  juggling  rule  over  the  spiritual  interests 
of  their  subjects  must  be  weakened  or  entirely  lost  by  the 
change. 

Encouraged  by  some  moderate  contributions  of  money  from 


1674]  JOHN  ELIOT.  201 

England,  an  entirely  new  village  was  built  at  Natick,  eight 
miles  west  of  Nonatum,  where  there  was  more  room  for  the 
development  of  agriculture  and  for  the  planting  of  orchards. 
In  all,  seven  of  these  villages  of  the  "Praying  Indians"  (so 
they  were  called)  were  organized  around  Boston. 

Eliot's  plan  of  government  for  the  Indians  was  that  T<  they 
were  to  be  wholly  governed  by  the  Scriptures  in  all  things, 
both  in  church  and  state;  the  Lord  should  be  their  law-giver, 
their  judge,  and  their  king;"  and  accordingly  he  began  to 
divide  them  as  were  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness,  with 
rulers  over  hundreds,  over  fifties,  and  over  tens.  Subse 
quently,  however,  there  was  a  court  appointed  to  be  held 
among  the  villages,  presided  over  by  a  magistrate  chosen  to 
act  with  the  Indian  rulers.  The  first  of  these  magistrates  was 
DANIEL  GOOKIN,  an  upright  and  intelligent  man,  whose  zeal 
for  the  natives,  like  that  of  Eliot's,  exposed  him  to  much 
opposition  and  derision  from  many  of  the  colonists,  who  de 
nied  that  the  experiment  could  be  a  success. 

In  the  meantime  Eliot  toiled  on  undaunted,  and,  having 
mastered  the  structure  of  the  language,  began  the  arduous 
task  of  translating  the  New  Testament  into  the  native  dialect. 
The  book  was  printed  in  1661 ;  the  Old  Testament  followed 
two  years  later,  and,  after  that,  there  were  printed  sundry 
religious  books  and  a  grammar.  In  the  work  of  publishing, 
the  translator  was  materially  aided  by  an  Indian  called  James 
the  Printer,  who  discharged  the  duties  of  proof-reader  and 
pressman. 

Within  the  jurisdiction  of  Plymouth  colony  also,  several 
settlements  of  Praying  Indians  were  established  on  the  islands 
of  Martha's  Vineyard  and  Nantucket,  and  on  the  promontory 
of  Cape  Cod.  These  were  placed  under  the  care  of  THOMAS 
MAYHEW,  whose  family,  for  the  space  of  five  generations  (170 
years)  continued  their  useful  labors.  In  1673  anc^  l^74)  Eliot 
and  Gookin  visited  the  country  of  the  Nipmucks,  about  50 
i* 


202  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES,  [1674 

miles  south-west  of  Boston,  and  there  organized  seven  other 
communities,  known  as  the  "  new  praying  towns."  A  year 
later,  when  the  disastrous  Indian  war  broke  out,  there  were 
probably  about  3500  natives  in  Massachusetts  and  Plymouth 
who  had  been  brought  under  the  direct  care  of  the  whites. 

Although  the  selling  of  spirituous  liquors  to  the  Indians  was  for 
bidden  by  law  in  Massachusetts,  the  prohibition  was  openly  evaded. 
Gookin  says  that  drunkenness  could  not  be  charged  to  the  Indians 
before  the  whites  came  to  America,  and  adds  :  "  The  English  in 
New  England  have  cause  to  be  greatly  humbled  before  God,  that 
they  have  been,  and  are,  instrumental  to  cause  these  Indians  to 
commit  this  great  evil  and  beastly  sin  of  drunkenness."  His  testi 
mony  on  this  point  is  confirmed  by  Heckewelder,  who  says  :  "  The 
Mexicans  have  their  pulque  and  other  indigenous  beverages  of  an 
inebriating  nature  ;  but  the  North  American  Indians,  before  their 
intercourse  with  us  commenced,  had  absolutely  nothing  of  the 
kind." 

KING   PHILIP'S   WAR. 

First  to  welcome  the  Puritan  pilgrims  when  they  landed  at 
Plymouth,  had  been  Massasoit,  sachem  of  the  Wampanoags. 
When  Roger  Williams,  driven  into  exile  by  the  stern  decree 
of  these  Puritan  colonists,  wandered  forth  alone  and  in  mid 
winter  into  the  gloomy  forest,  the  wigwam  of  the  same  Massa 
soit  afforded  shelter  to  the  destined  founder  of  Rhode  Island. 
But  now  the  old  chief  was  dead.  Wamsutta,  or  Alexander, 
the  elder  son,  had  been  accused  of  plotting  with  the  Narra- 
gansetts,  and,  while  on  the  journey  to  Boston  to  answer  the 
charge,  fell  sick  of  a  fever  and  died ;  and  his  brother  META- 
COMET,  or  Philip,  ruled  in  his  place. 

Year  by  year  the  settlers,  at  a  trifling  cost,  had  possessed 
themselves  of  the  Indian  lands,  until  at  last  the  Wampanoags 
found  that  their  once  broad  domain  had  narrowed  to  the  little 
peninsulas  about  Mount  Hope  bay,  east  of  the  great  bay  of 
Narragansett.  A  feeling  of  mutual  distrust  prevailed,  for  the 


1675]  KING  PHILIP'S   WAR. 


203 


Indians  were  irritated  by  the  loss  of  their  hunting-grounds 
and  their  present  state  of  subjection  to  the  English  ;  while 
the  latter,  viewing  the  discontent  of  the  red  men  with  sus 
picion,  were  ready  to  charge  them  with  all  manner  of  dark 
designs.  The  peace  which  had  lasted  nearly  forty  years  since 
the  Pequods  were  crushed,  was  about  to  be  broken. 

A  historian,  by  no  means  friendly  to  the  Indians,  observes  of  this 
war :  "  There  was  too  much  of  positiveness  and  arrogance  in  the 
Englishman's  way  of  asserting  his  claims,  even  when  those  claims 
were  in  every  respect  moderate  and  equitable  ;  and  his  kindness, 
even  when  most  cordial  and  beneficent,  wore  a  mien  of  condescen 
sion  and  pity."  Penn's  successful  treatment,  the  same  as  the  ap 
proved  method  of  the  present  day,  could  not  have  been  possibly 
attainable,  without  a  truthful  exhibition  of  Christian  candor  and 
meekness.  Hence,  while  it  is  admitted  that  Philip  and  his  warriors 
were  much  to  blame  for  their  behavior,  yet  the  odium  of  this  savage 
war  will  always  rest  with  the  Puritans,  because  it  is  evident  that 
many  of  them  had  not  manifested  that  forbearance  and  conciliation 
which  their  profession  of  a  purer  religion  than  that  of  the  natives 
called  for. 

The  immediate  cause  of  the  war  was  the  circumstance  that 
information  had  been  given  to  the  colonists  by  an  Indian, 
that  a  combination  of  the  tribes  had  been  formed  for  the  pur 
pose  of  recovering  their  liberty  and  lands.  The  informer 
was  murdered  by  some  of  the  Wampanoags,  while  the  mur 
derers  in  their  turn  were  seized,  and,  having  been  tried  by  a 
jury,  partly  of  Indians,  were  convicted  of  the  deed  and  hung. 
It  has  been  strongly  asserted  that  the  charge  of  a  conspiracy 
was  untrue,  but  whether  such  was  the  case  or  not,  the  Indians, 
with  "King  Philip"  as  their  leader,  prepared  to  wreak  their 
revenge.  CANONCHET,  the  son  of  Miantonomah,  chief  of  the 
Narragansetts,  and  Wetamoo,  the  widow  of  Wamsutta,  entered 
into  the  league — the  Indian  Revolution  of  1675. 

Driven  from  Mount  Hope  by  the  militia  of  Massachusetts 
and  Plymouth  and  their  Mohegan  allies,  Philip  and  his  war- 


204  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1676 

riors,  having  burnt  the  villages  of  Dartmouth  and  Taunton 
and  butchered  many  of  the  inhabitants,  fled  westward  to  the 
country  of  the  Nipmucks.  In  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut 
there  were  at  that  time,  within  the  Massachusetts  border,  six 
settlements  of  the  whites;  and  of  these,  Northfield,  Deerfield 
and  Springfield  were  set  on  fire,  while  Hatfield,  Hadley  and 
Northampton,  though  assaulted,  escaped  destruction.  Near 
Deerfield,  the  little  stream  called  Bloody  Brook  commemo 
rates  the  massacre  of  over  a  hundred  farmers  and  militia,  who 
were  carrying  their  harvested  grain  to  the  lower  towns.  The 
Indians  did  not  enter  the  borders  of  the  Connecticut  colony. 

When  winter  approached,  the  colonists  having  appointed 
JOSIAH  WINSLOW,  the  governor  of  Plymouth,  their  com 
mander,  penetrated  into  the  country  of  the  Narragansetts  on 
the  west  of  the  bay  of  that  name.  Canonchet  and  his  tribe 
had  fortified  themselves  in  a  palisadoed  enclosure,  situated  on 
a  rising  ground  in  the  midst  of  a  swamp,  and  not  far  from  the 
fort  where  the  Pequods  had  met  their  signal  defeat.  In  the 
same  way  were  the  Narragansetts  now  to  fall.  Their  assailants 
suffered  great  loss  before  an  entrance  to  the  fort  could  be 
effected,  but  that  point  gained,  the  Indians  were  shot  down 
by  hundreds,  their  wigwams  set  on  fire,  and  great  numbers, 
especially  women  and  babes,  perished  in  the  flames.  In  this 
awful  battle,  known  as  the  Swamp  Fight,  nearly  a  thousand 
warriors  were  supposed  to  have  been  slain  ;  of  the  English, 
one-fourth  that  number  were  killed  and  wounded. 

East  of  the  six  Massachusetts  settlements  on  the  Connecti 
cut,  there  was  a  forest  country  unoccupied  as  yet  by  the  Eng 
lish,  except  at  one  point — the  village  of  Brookfield.  This  place 
had  been  set  on  fire  early  in  the  war,  and  now  with  the  open 
ing  of  1676,  many  settlements  nearer  to  Boston,  as  Lancaster, 
Sudbury,  Andover,  etc.,  were  sacked  and  burned.  Even  Ply 
mouth  was  attacked ;  and  in  Rhode  Island,  Providence,  War 
wick  and  numerous  other  places  were  fired.  The  dwellers  in 


1676]  KING  PHILIPS    WAR.  205 

lonely  habitations  by  the  forest-side,  were  kept  in  a  constant 
state  of  excitement  and  dread,  their  fears  destined  too  often 
to  be  terribly  realized.  The  magistrates,  in  the  meantime, 
had  levied  additional  recruits,  who,  being  aided  by  the  Mohe- 
gans,  and  by  Ninigret,  sachem  of  the  Niantics,  the  Narra- 
gansetts  were  pursued,  and  Canonchet  their  chief  was  cap 
tured.  Being  given  up  to  his  bitter  enemies  the  Mohegans, 
he  met  with  the  same  fate  at  their  hands  as  did  his  father 
before  him. 

The  Nipmucks  of  the  "new  praying  towns"  mostly  joined 
the  hostile  Indians.  The  converts  on  Cape  Cod  and  Martha's 
Vineyard  did  not  unite  with  their  brethren  in  the  war;  but 
many  of  those  around  Boston  were  persuaded  to  do  so,  some 
espousing  the  cause  of  Philip,  and  others  taking  part  with  the 
colonists.  Thus  the  lessons  of  love  and  good-will  which  had 
been  taught  them,  were  greatly  marred  in  practice ;  their  vil 
lages  were  broken  up ;  and  the  converts  who  remained  were 
discouraged  and  weakened  in  faith.  A  number  of  the  non- 
combatant  Indians,  having  been  brought  to  trial  upon  a  charge 
of  being  concerned  in  murdering  several  persons  near  Lan 
caster,  Eliot  and  Gookin  (who  believed  the  allegation  to  be 
false)  were  treated  with  suspicion  and  reviling  by  the  colo 
nists  because  they  took  the  part  of  the  Indians.  Several 
hundred  of  them  were  removed  to  Deer  island,  in  Boston 
harbor,  where  they  experienced  much  unmerited  privation. 

Among  numerous  instances  of  harsh  treatment  which  happened 
to  these  Indians  on  account  of  false  accusations,  was  the  result 
which  followed  the  burning  of  a  barn  at  Chelmsford — the  act  of 
some  members  of  a  hostile  tribe.  The  exasperated  settlers  went 
to  a  village  of  Christian  Indians,  and,  having  called  them  to  come 
out  of  their  wigwams,  fired  upon  the  innocent  and  unsuspecting 
natives,  killing  one  and  wounding  five  others.  Dismayed  at  this 
brutal  attack  they  fled  far  into  the  forests,  and  were  only  induced 
to  return  when  winter  approached  and  starvation  threatened  them. 
"  We  are  not  sorry,"  they  said  to  the  messengers  who  sought  them, 
18 


206  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1676 

"  for  what  we  leave  behind  ;  but  we  are  sorry  that  the  English  have 
driven  us  from  our  praying  to  God,  and  from  our  teacher.  We  did 
begin  to  understand  a  little  of  praying  to  God." 


The  war  was  finally  concluded  by  the  death  of  Philip, 
who,  having  returned  to  Mount  Hope,  was  surrounded  by  a 
scouting  party  led  by  Captain  Benjamin  Church,  and  shot 
dead  in  his  effort  to  escape.  Philip's  only  son,  the  last  of 
the  family  of  Massasoit,  was  sent  as  a  slave  to  Bermuda. 

Let  us  now  see  what  was  the  cost  of  this  war  to  the  whites. 
Of  the  eighty  or  more  towns  in  Massachusetts  and  Plymouth, 
ten  had  been  totally  destroyed,  while  forty  had  been  more  or 
less  damaged  by  fire.  About  600  men,  of  military  age,  had 
been  killed,  or  were  taken  prisoners  and  never  again  heard 
of.  The  debt  incurred  by  Plymouth  colony  was  believed  to 
have  exceeded  the  value  of  all  the  personal  property  of  its 
people.  The  Praying  Indians,  with  great  labor  had  been 
brought  to  the  threshold  of  the  Christian  faith,  to  find  that 
many  of  its  professors  were  not  themselves  led  by  its  persua 
sive  teachings ;  being,  when  aggrieved  but  too  ready  to  cite 
for  their  warrant,  the  Jewish  maxims  of  war,  while  denouncing 
their  barbarian  enemies  as  very  Philistines. 

But  the  contest,  unfortunately,  also  extended  to  the  prov 
inces  east  of  the  Merrimac.  The  state  of  Maine,  which  at 
present  is  comprised  between  the  Piscataqua  river  on  the  west 
and  the  St.  Croix  on  the  east,  was  at  that  time  divided  into 
three  sections,  under  as  many  different  governments.  The 
territory  between  the  St.  Croix  and  the  Penobscot,  although 
claimed  by  the  English,  was  considered  by  the  French  to  be 
part  of  their  Acadie ;  from  the  Penobscot  to  the  Kennebec 
was  the  district  of  Cornwall,  held  as  a  tributary  province  by 
Governor  Andros  for  the  Duke  of  York  ;  from  the  Kennebec 
to  the  Piscataqua,  was  the  proper  colony  of  Maine,  being 
under  the  jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts,  as  was  also  the  adja- 


1678]  KING  PHILIPS   WAR.  207 

cent  colony  of  New  Hampshire.  In  the  latter  territory  the 
sagamore  Passaconaway,  and  after  him  his  son  Wannalancet, 
always  manifested  a  friendship  for  the  English.  The  natives 
of  Maine  and  Cornwall  had  experienced  much  unjust  treat 
ment  from  a  number  of  the  rude-mannered  settlers,  so  that 
upon  intelligence  reaching  them  of  the  successful  war  of  Philip 
and  his  allies,  they  too  entered  upon  the  same  career  of 
revenge. 

In  a  very  short  time  all  the  Cornwall  habitations  were 
broken  up  and  the  settlers  either  killed  or  driven  away.  Many 
of  the  fugitives  having  found  refuge  on  Monhegan  and  other 
islands,  a  vessel  sent  by  Andros  conveyed  them  to  a  place  of 
safety.  In  Maine  and  New  Hampshire,  nearly  one-half  the 
settlements  were  destroyed,  and  the  loss  of  life  was  greater 
in  proportion  than  it  had  been  in  Massachusetts,  for  the  In 
dians  readily  obtained  arms  and  ammunition  from  the  French 
on  the  east  of  the  Penobscot.  Major  Waldron,  a  native  of 
Dover,  was  commissioned  by  the  Boston  authorities  to  carry 
on  the  war. 

There  came  to  Dover  a  body  of  400  natives  to  treat  for 
peace.  Waldron  proposed  to  the  Indians  to  engage  in  a  sham 
fight ;  but  having  induced  them  to  discharge  their  fire-arms, 
his  troops  surrounded  the  natives  and  made  them  prisoners. 
Allowing  half  of  them  to  depart,  the  rest  he  sent  captives  to 
Boston,  alleging  that  they  were  peace-breakers  and  murderers. 
The  most  of  these  were  transported  as  slaves  to  the  West 
Indies.  At  the  mouth  of  the  Kennebec,  Waldron  built  a  fort 
and  appointed  a  meeting  with  a  number  of  the  sachems. 
Having  discovered  some  lances  in  one  of  the  canoes,  the 
whites  professed  to  mistrust  the  purpose  of  the  Indians,  and 
thereupon  attacked  and  killed  ten  of  the  emissaries.  The 
war  began  again  with  renewed  fury  and  havoc,  and  continued 
until  the  spring  of  1678,  when  a  treaty  was  made  at  Casco 
with  SQUANDO,  sagamore  of  the  Tarrantines,  and  other  chiefs, 


208  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1684 

by  which  the  English  agreed  to  pay  the  Indians  a  regular 
annuity  in  corn. 


THE  COLONIAL    CHARTERS    DEMANDED.    ANDROS,  GOVERNOR 
OF   NEW   ENGLAND. 

About  the  time  that  the  war  terminated  in  Massachusetts, 
but  while  it  was  yet  in  progress  beyond  the  Merrimac,  King 
Charles  sent  over  a  commissioner,  Edward  Randolph,  to  inquire 
into  the  condition  of  the  New  England  colonies,  with  the  object 
in  view  of  assuming  the  direct  government  of  those  provinces 
by  recalling  their  charters.  Royalty  complained  of  colonial 
independence  of  action,  not  only  because  the  crown  had  not 
been  called  upon  to  furnish  aid  in  the  late  war,  but  because 
the  colony  had  exercised  powers  not  belonging  to  it.  The 
jurisdiction  of  Massachusetts  over  Maine  and  New  Hampshire 
was  denied  as  not  being  in  accordance  with  the  intent  of  its 
charter;  but  Massachusetts  purchased  (1677)  the  old  Gorges 
claim  and  thus  became  proprietary  of  Maine,  and  appointed 
its  magistrates.  The  Mason  claim  for  New  Hampshire,  how 
ever,  was  annulled  by  the  crown.  Being  organized  as  a  royal 
province  (1680),  EDWARD  CRANFIELD  was  appointed  its  gov 
ernor  ;  but  his  measures  were  very  unpopular  with  the  colo 
nists,  and  after  serving  four  years  he  was  recalled  at  his  own 
request. 

In  Massachusetts,  the  royal  proceedings  caused  great  dis 
content.  Randolph,  in  the  interest  of  the  king,  went  back 
and  forth  from  England  to  the  colony,  and  finally  appeared 
with  a  writ  by  which  the  colony  was  arraigned  to  answer  before 
an  English  court  the  charges  against  it,  and  to  submit  to  an 
alteration  of  its  charter.  This  the  commissioners  for  the 
colony  refused  to  do,  whereupon,  in  1684,  the  court  decided 
that  the  charter  of  Massachusetts  was  forfeited.  Two  years 
later  appeared  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  appointed  to  be  governor 


1689]       ANDROS,   GOVERNOR    OF  NEW  ENGLAND.       209 

of  all  New  England,  from  Long  Island  Sound  to  the  borders 
of  the  French  province  of  Acadie.  Forcible  entrance  and 
toleration  were  secured  by  the  governor  for  the  established 
Episcopal  religion  of  England.  His  arbitrary  rule  and  that 
of  Randolph,  his  secretary,  occasioned  the  same  grievous 
complaints  as  those  which  had  already  broken  out  in  New- 
York  and  New  Jersey.  It  will  be  remembered  that  upon  the 
cession  of  New  Netherland,  the  English  owners  declared  that 
the  Dutch  land-patents  must  be  superseded  by  new  ones. 
This  rule  was  applied  in  Massachusetts,  the  court  fees  at  the 
same  time  being  increased  enormously :  so  that  Andros  not 
only  imitated  the  example  of  Nichols,  but  very  much  ex 
ceeded  it. 

Rhode  Island,  after  some  demur,  also  gave  up  its  charter. 
Andros,  anticipating  more  resistance  from  Connecticut,  pro 
ceeded  thither  with  a  small  armed  force.  While  the  subject 
of  his  errand  was  being  earnestly  debated  in  the  assembly- 
room,  night  had  come  on.  Suddenly  the  lights  were  extin 
guished,  but  when  they  were  re-lit,  the  charter  was  gone.  It 
was  hidden  in  the  hollow  of  an  oak,  yet  notwithstanding  its 
abstraction  Andros  assumed  the  control  of  the  colony.  The 
commission  of  Dongan,  governor  of  New  York,  being  like 
wise  revoked,  Andros  finally  added  to  his  prior  dignities  the 
governorship  of  that  province  as  well  as  of  New  Jersey. 

But  when,  in  the  spring  of  1689,  tne  stirring  news  was  re 
ceived  at  Boston  that  James  the  Second  was  an  exile,  and  that 
William,  Prince  of  Orange,  and  Mary,  his  wife,  were  the 
ruling  sovereigns  of  England,  Andros,  Randolph,  and  about 
fifty  of  their  retainers  were  placed  in  close  confinement,  and 
the  people  again  came  under  the  old  charter.  The  same 
revolution  was  also  peacefully  accomplished  in  the  other  New 
England  colonies;  but  in  New  York,  Maryland  and  Virginia 
much  more  opposition  was  manifested. 

18* 


CHAPTER    XVI. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

1681 — 1692. 


WILLIAM  PENN  AND  THE  ROYAL  GRANT. 

WILLIAM  PENN  was  the  only  son  of  that  Admiral  Penn  who 
had  acquired  celebrity  as  commander  of  the  English  fleet  at 
the  conquest  of  Jamaica,  and  also  for  the  part  he  had  taken 
in  the  subsequent  war  against  the  Dutch.  A  large  sum  of 
money  was  due  from  the  government  to  the  admiral,  for 
arrearages  of  pay,  and  for  money  advanced  by  him  to  the 
naval  service  ;  and  it  was  in  consideration  of  this  claim  that 
William  Penn,  several  years  after  the  death  of  his  father,  pe- 
tioned  King  Charles  the  Second  for  a  tract  of  land  on  the 
Delaware  river  north  and  east  of  Maryland.  After  consider 
ing  the  objections  of  Lord  Baltimore,  as  proprietary  of  Mary 
land,  and  of  the  Duke  of  York,  as  proprietary  of  New  York 
and  of  the  counties  of  New  Castle,  Kent  and  Sussex  on  the 
Delaware,  the  request  of  Penn  was  complied  with,  and  in  the 
3d  month  (March),  1681,  he  was  granted  a  charter  with  full 
powers  of  government,  for  the  tract  of  land  thereafter  to  be 
called  PENNSYLVANIA. 

Penn's  request  for  the  ownership  of  a  province  was  prompted 
by  no  selfish  purpose  of  gain,  but  simply  that  he  might  have 
it  in  his  power  to  offer  to  the  persecuted  people  of  all  relig 
ious  creeds,  and  especially  those  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  a 
safe  refuge  from  their  oppressors.  He  knew  very  well,  by 


1 68 1]      WILLIAM  PENN  AND   THE   ROYAL    GRANT.      2n 

hard  experience,  not  a  few  of  the  evils  of  illiberal  and  unjust 
government,  and  strong  and  sincere  was  his  hope  to  exhibit 
to  mankind  a  better  example.  Like  metal  that  is  tempered 
for  excellent  service  by  fire  and  frequent  hammerings,  so  Penn 
had  been  well  prepared  for  undertaking  what  he  called  the 
"  Holy  Experiment." 

Educated  at  Oxford,  Penn  had  afterward  visited  various 
parts  of  Europe,  becoming  conversant  with  the  customs  of 
the  people  and  the  peculiarities  of  their  governments  ;  but 
having  on  his  return  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  despised 
sect  of  Quakers,  he  was  turned  out  of  his  father's  house,  and, 
at  the  early  age  of  twenty-four,  became  a  prisoner  in  the 
tower  of  London.  Being  released  from  confinement,  he  was 
arrested,  under  the  persecuting  "Conventicle  Act,"  for 
merely  speaking  at  a  meeting ;  but  his  trial  before  the  judge, 
which  is  memorable  for  his  defence  of  the  jury's  right  to 
freedom  of  decision,  resulted  in  a  verdict  of  not  guilty.  Yet 
he  was  again  imprisoned  half  a  year  for  a  similar  offence ; 
then  being  set  at  liberty,  he  travelled  in  Germany,  and,  later, 
became  concerned  in  the  affairs  of  East  and  West  Jersey. 

Perm's  purity  of  purpose  is  best  set  forth  in  his  own  letter  to  his 
friends,  while  preparing  for  the  settlement  and  government  of  Penn 
sylvania  :  "  Because  I  have  been  somewhat  exercised  at  times,"  he 
remarks,  "about  the  nature  and  end  of  government  among  men,  it 
is  reasonable  to  expect  that  I  should  endeavor  to  establish  a  just 
and  righteous  one  in  the  province,  that  others  may  take  example 
by  it:  truly  this  my  heart  desires.  For  the  nations  want  a  prece 
dent  ;  and  till  vice  and  corrupt  manners  be  impartially  rebuked  and 
punished,  and  till  virtue  and  sobriety  be  cherished,  the  wrath  of 
God  will  hang  over  nations.  I  do  therefore  desire  the  Lord's  wis 
dom  to  guide  me  and  those  that  may  be  concerned  with  me,  that  we 
may  do  the  thing  that  is  truly  wise  and  just." 

The  territory  granted  by  King  Charles,  was  described  in 
the  charter  as  extending  from  a  point  on  the  Delaware  twelve 


212  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1681 

miles  above  New  Castle,  up  the  course  of  said  river  to  the 
beginning  of  the  43d  degree  of  latitude,  and  westward  five 
degrees  of  longitude.  The  southern  boundary,  however,  set 
forth  an  impossibility,  as  it  required  a  circle  of  twelve  miles 
radius  to  be  drawn,  with  New  Castle  at  its  centre,  which  circle 
should  touch  the  beginning  of  the  4oth  degree  of  latitude; 
then  to  extend  along  that  line  to  the  western  boundary.  It 
would  thus  appear  that  the  grant  included  three  degrees  of 
latitude — from  the  beginning  of  the  4oth  to  the  beginning 
of  the  43d  parallel — but  so  much  territory  could  not  be  taken 
without  including  portions  of  previous  grants  to  New  York 
and  to  Maryland.  For  the  northern  boundary,  the  42d  line 
of  latitude  was  settled  on  as  meaning  the  "beginning"  of  the 
43d  degree ;  but,  on  the  other  hand,  Lord  Baltimore  would 
not  agree  that  the  39th  line  should  mark  the  beginning  of  the 
4oth  degree.  This  inexactness  of  expression  occasioned  con 
siderable  dispute  with  Lord  Baltimore,  who  likewise  claimed 
the  three  counties  on  the  Delaware  ;  but  the  latter  were  de 
cided,  by  the  English  arbitrators,  as  forming  no  part  of  Mary 
land.  Many  years  elapsed  before  the  boundary  line  between 
Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  was  finally  adjusted. 

THE  GREAT  TREATY  AT  SHACKAMAXON. 

Penn  now  published  an  account  of  the  province,  offering 
lands  for  sale  at  the  low  price  of  forty  shillings  per  hundred 
acres,  subject  to  a  quit-rent  of  one  shilling  per  annum.  At 
the  same  time,  he  cautioned  people  who  might  have  intentions 
of  removing,  not  to  make  the  change  rashly,  but  to  first  weigh 
well  the  inconveniences  of  life  in  a  new  world,  and,  in  form 
ing  their  plans,  to  consider  the  glory  of  the  Almighty  as 
paramount,  that  so  His  blessing  might  attend  their  honest 
endeavors. 

The  testimony  of  one  of  the  first  settlers  :  "  Our  business  here  in 
this  new  land,  is  not  so  much  to  build  houses,  and  establish  factories, 


1682]      THE    GREAT  TREATY  AT  SHACKAMAXON.       213 

and  promote  trade  and  manufactories  that  may  enrich  ourselves 
(though  all  these  things,  in  their  due  places,  are  not  to  be  neglected) 
as  to  erect  temples  of  holiness  and  righteousness,  which  God  may 
delight  in  ;  to  lay  such  lasting  foundations  of  temperance  and  virtue, 
as  may  support  the  superstructures  of  our  future  happiness,  both 
in  this  and  the  other  world.  In  order  to  these  great  and  glorious 
ends,  it  will  well  become,  nay,  it  is  the  indispensable  duty  of  all  that 
are  superiors  amongst  us,  to  make  laws  and  initiate  customs,  that 
may  tend  to  innocency  and  a  harmless  life,  so  as  to  avoid  and  pre 
vent  all  oppression  and  violence  either  to  man  or  beast ;  by  which 
we  shall  strengthen  the  principle  of  well-doing,  and  qualify  the  fierce, 
bitter,  envious,  wrathful  spirit." 

Upon  the  publication  of  Penn's  proposals  a  great  number 
of  purchasers  appeared,  a  body  of  whom,  having  obtained  a 
tract  of  20,000  acres  of  land,  formed  a  company  called  the 
"  Free  Society  of  Traders  in  Pennsylvania."  WILLIAM  MARK- 
HAM  was  sent  out  by  Penn,  as  deputy-governor,  in  1681 ;  there 
being  associated  with  him  a  number  of  commissioners  who 
were  instructed  to  hold  a  conference  with  the  Indians.  They 
bore  a  letter  of  greeting  from  the  proprietary  to  the  natives, 
in  which  he  told  them  that,  though  the  king  of  the  country 
where  he  lived  had  given  him  the  province,  yet  he  desired 
only  to  enjoy  it  with  their  love  and  consent ;  that  he  desired 
to  win  and  gain  their  love  and  friendship  by  a  kind,  just  and 
peaceable  life ;  and  that  he  himself  would  shortly  come,  and 
arrange  everything,  as  he  hoped,  to  their  satisfaction. 

Accordingly,  the  following  year  (1682),  Penn,  accompanied 
by  about  one  hundred  persons,  mostly  of  the  Society  of 
Friends,  sailed  in  the  ship  Welcome  for  the  capes  of  the  Dela 
ware.  The  Duke  of  York  had  previously  assigned  to  him 
the  "three  Lower  Counties,"  afterward  the  state  of  Dela 
ware,  bordering  the  west  side  of  the  bay.  On  the  2yth  day  of 
the  loth  month  (October)  Penn  landed  at  New  Castle,  and 
having  summoned  the  people  to  the  court-house,  they  all — 
English,  Dutch  and  Swedes — joyfully  acknowledged  his  gov- 


2i4  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1682 

ernment.  Assuring  them  of  the  continuance  of  their  freedom 
and  of  entire  liberty  of  conscience,  and  recommending  them 
to  live  in  sobriety  and  peace,  he  re-appointed  the  former 
magistrates,  and,  re-embarking,  continued  a  little  further  up 
the  river  to  Upland  or  Chester. 

At  Chester  an  assembly  was  called,  which  passed  an  act  of 
union,  annexing  the  three  Lower  Counties  to  the  chartered 
province  of  Pennsylvania,  and  accepting  with  some  alterations 
a  frame  of  government  and  code  of  laws  which  Penn  had 
prepared  in  England,  and  had  sent  over  the  previous  year  by 
Markham.  The  Swedes  deputed  one  of  their  number  to  ac 
quaint  him  that  "  they  would  love,  serve  and  obey  him,  with 
all  they  had,"  declaring,  "  it  was  the  best  day  they  ever  saw." 
At  Shackamaxon  (in  the  present  Kensington  district  of  Phila 
delphia),  beneath  a  great  elm  by  the  river's  side,  was  held  that 
notable  interview  with  the  Indians,  which  is  famed  as  the  only 
treaty  "between  those  nations  and  the  Christians,  which  was 
never  sworn  to  and  never  broken."  The  precise  date  of  this 
treaty  is  uncertain. 

In  tones  of  kindness  and  with  benevolent  aspect,  Penn  ad 
dressed  the  sachems,  telling  them  of  the  Great  Spirit  who 
made  him  and  them  and  was  the  Ruler  of  all  things  in  heaven 
and  earth,  and  who,  knowing  his  inmost  thoughts,  was  aware 
that  his  heart's  desire  was  to  live  in  peace  and  friendship  with 
the  Indians,  and  to  serve  them  to  the  utmost  of  his  power. 
He  told  them  that  he  and  his  friends  came  unarmed  amongst 
them  because  it  was  not  their  custom  to  use  hostile  weapons 
against  their  fellow-creatures ;  for  their  object  was  not  to  do 
injury  and  thus  provoke  the  Great  Spirit,  but  to  do  good. 
They  were  now  met  on  the  broad  pathway  of  peace  and  good 
will,  so  that  no  advantage  was  to  be  taken  on  either  side ;  but 
all  was  to  be  openness,  brotherhood  and  love. 

He  also  assured  them  that  they  were  not  to  be  driven  away 
from  their  lands  nor  molested  in  their  lawful  pursuits ;  and  in 


1 682]  PHILADELPHIA   FOUNDED.  215 

case  disputes  arose  between  themselves  and  the  settlers,  they 
should  be  peaceably  adjusted  by  a  tribunal  to  be  chosen  equally 
by  the  English  and  Indians.  Presents  were  given  to  the 
sachems,  who,  in  return,  handed  back  the  peace  belt  of  wam 
pum.  In  conclusion,  Penn  told  them  that  he  would  not  call 
them  children  or  brothers  only,  for  often  parents  would  whip 
their  children  too  severely,  and  brothers  would  differ  ;  neither 
would  he  compare  the  friendship  between  them  to  a  chain, 
which  rain  might  rust,  or  a  tree  might  fall  upon  and  break ; 
but  he  would  esteem  them  as  being  of  the  same  blood  with 
the  Christians — the  same  as  though  they  were  two  parts  of  one 
body.  Great  were  the  promises  which  the  red  men  heard, 
but  never  were  they  broken  while  the  peaceful  disciples  of 
Fox  and  Penn  had  sufficient  power  in  the  government  to 
secure  a  just  and  friendly  conduct  toward  them. 

About  five  years  after  the  "great  treaty,"  a  report  spread  that  500 
Indians  had  gathered  on  the  Brandywine,  with  the  intention  of 
raising  a  general  insurrection  and  cutting  off  all  the  English  on  an 
appointed  day.  The  horrors  of  Philip's  war  in  N>w  England  were 
fresh  in  people's  minds,  so  that  the  dire  rumor  that  spread  on  all 
sides  created  considerable  alarm  ;  but  a  number  of  the  Friends, 
conscious  of  their  just  dealings  and  honest  intentions  toward  the 
natives,  at  once  agreed  to  ride  unarmed  to  the  Brandywine  and  to 
know  of  the  truth  of  the  report.  They  found  the  old  sachem  lying 
quietly  in  his  wigwam  upon  a  sort  of  pillow,  the  women  at  work  in 
the  field,  the  children  at  play  together.  When  informed  of  the  report 
which  had  reached  the  settlement,  the  sachem  was  much  displeased, 
and  told  the  messengers  that  they  might  go  home  and  gather  their 
harvests  in  safety,  for  his  heart  harbored  no  enmity  against  the 
English. 


PHILADELPHIA  FOUNDED. 

On  the  neck  of  land  formed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Schuylkill  river  with  the  Delaware,  William  Penn,  in  the 
latter  part  of  1682,  marked  out  the  streets  and  bounds  of  the 


216  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1686 

city  of  PHILADELPHIA.  The  site  of  the  city,  which  was  pur 
chased  of  three  Swedes,  the  brothers  Swenson,  presented  at  that 
day,  a  high  bold  bank  along  the  Delaware,  fringed  with  a  line 
of  tall  pine  trees,  and  called  by  the  Indians  Coaquannock. 
In  this  bank,  before  any  houses  were  built,  many  of  the  first 
settlers  dug  caves  and  holes  to  reside  in.  The  first  native  Penn- 
sylvanian  of  English  parents  was  born  in  one  of  these  burrows. 

The  avenues  of  Philadelphia  have  a  wide  reputation  for 
their  regularity.  Penn  laid  out  a  "High"  street,  running 
east  and  west  from  river  to  river,  and  a  central  "Broad" 
street  running  north  and  south  at  right-angles  to  the  former, 
besides  many  parallel  avenues.  At  the  place  of  intersection 
of  Broad  and  High  streets  were  four  open  squares.  There 
was  also  a  large  plat  reserved  in  each  of  the  four  quarters. 
It  was  the  design  of  its  founder,  that  Philadelphia  should  be 
an  open  and  healthy  city,  so  far  as  his  plans  could  accom 
plish  that  purpose ;  and  with  that  intent  he  desired  that 
"every  house  should  be  placed,  if  the  person  pleases,  in  the 
middle  of  its  plat,  as  to  the  breadth  way  of  it,  that  so  there 
may  be  ground  on  each  side  for  garden  or  orchards  or  fields, 
that  it  may  be  a  green  country  town,  which  will  never  be 
burnt  and  always  be  wholesome." 

About  a  year  after  Penn's  arrival,  a  number  of  German 
Friends  from  Kresheim,  settled  about  six  miles  from  Philadel 
phia,  at  a  place  which  they  called  Germantown.  Many  of 
the  same  society  also  came  from  Wales,  and  took  up  lands  in 
the  neighborhood  of  the  city.  In  less  than  five  years  Phila 
delphia  gained  more  than  did  New  York  in  half  a  century. 
Over  twenty  vessels  arrived  the  first  year,  and  within  a  brief 
time  there  were  many  habitations  of  settlers  upon  the  Dela 
ware,  even  as  far  as  the  falls  at  Trenton,  near  which  was  the 
proprietary's  manor  of  Pennsbury.  These  all  built  without 
fear  of  molestation  from  the  natives;  for,  they  said,  "As  our 
worthy  Proprietor  treated  the  Indians  with  extraordinary  hu- 


1 682]  PHILADELPHIA  FOUNDED.  217 

manity,  they  became  very  civil-  and  loving  to  us,  and  brought 
in  abundance  of  venison.  And  whereas  in  other  countries 
the  Indians  were  exasperated  by  hard  treatment,  which  hath 
been  the  foundation  of  much  bloodshed,  so  the  contrary 
treatment  here,  hath  procured  their  love  and  affection." 

To  the  Free  Society  of  Traders,  in  London,  Penn  wrote 
a  fair  account  of  the  province,  its  climate,  productions  and 
native  people.  He  counselled  them  not  to  abuse  the  Indians, 
but  to  win  them  with  justice ;  praying  that  the  hearts  of  all 
who  came  into  those  parts  would  incline  them  to  show  the 
natives  that  their  claim  of  a  greater  knowledge  of  the  will  of 
God  was  not  an  idle  boast,  because,  says  Penn,  "//  were  mis 
erable  indeed  for  us  to  fall  under  the  just  censure  of  the  poor 
Indian  conscience,  while  we  make  profession  of  things  so  far 
transcending"  Those  words  may  be  said  to  sound  the  key 
note  of  the  Quaker  policy. 

For  the  settlement  of  disputes  and  the  prevention  of  law 
suits,  three  peacemakers  or  arbitrators  were  appointed  for 
each  county.  Penn  was  offered  a  revenue  from  the  imposition 
of  a  tax  on  exports,  but  this  he  would  not  agree  to,  although 
it  was  a  custom  commonly  adopted  by  the  colonial  proprie 
taries.  Nevertheless,  he  had  expended  several  thousand 
pounds  sterling  in  rightly  settling  his  province  and  in  the 
payment  and  instruction  of  the  Indians.  In  organizing  the 
provincial  government ;  in  laying  the  foundation  of  its  future 
great  city ;  in  securing  the  good-will  of  the  Indians,  as  well 
as  of  the  Dutch  and  Swedes,  Penn  had  been  eminently  suc 
cessful  :  but  the  controversy  with  Lord  Baltimore  respecting 
the  boundary  line  was  not  so  readily  settled. 

Immediately  after  Penn's  arrival  in  the  province,  he  had 
proceeded  to  Maryland  to  consult  with  Baltimore  upon  the 
running  of  their  dividing  lines ;  but  the  two  proprietors  were 
unable  to  agree.  Again,  Penn  appointed  a  meeting  at  New 
Castle  to  which  Lord  Baltimore  came,  but  he  would  not 
K  19 


2i8  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1691 

acquiesce  in  Perm's  suggestion  that  they  and  their  councils 
should  meet  in  separate  houses  in  the  town,  and  treat  with 
each  other  by  written  memorials  so  as  to  prevent  the  mistakes 
arising  from  ill  designs  or  slips  of  memory.  Wherefore,  to 
bring  the  dispute  to  a  close  by  obtaining  the  decision  of 
higher  authority,  Penn  returned  to  England  in  the  summer  of 
1684,  leaving  the  executive  power  in  the  hands  of  the  council, 
of  which  THOMAS  LLOYD  was  president. 

DISAGREEMENTS   IN   COUNCIL. 

It  would  have  been  better  for  the  political  tranquillity  of  the 
province  had  Penn  remained  there;  for,  many  times  during 
his  absence  of  fifteen  years,  disputes  arose  in  the  council, 
which  would  readily  have  yielded  to  his  firmness  and  fairness 
of  purpose.  The  error  seems  to  have  been  in  lodging  the  ex 
ecutive  power  in  the  council,  thus  having  too  many  adminis 
trators  in  the  place  of  one.  That  body  likewise,  did  not 
work  harmoniously  with  the  assembly,  nor  the  latter  with  the 
members  from  the  three  Lower  Counties.  Lloyd,  disliking 
his  position,  was  excused  from  further  service,  and  Captain 
John  Blackwell  was  appointed  by  Penn  as  his  deputy.  The 
selection,  however,  was  not  a  judicious  one,  for  Blackwell 
was  a  man  accustomed  to  the  military  service,  and,  as  he 
utterly  disagreed  with  the  council,  he  was  soon  recalled. 
These  disagreements  were  the  occasion  of  much  grief  to  the 
proprietary,  who  frequently  addressed  Lloyd  and  others  of 
influence,  urging  them  to  "love,  forgive,  help  and  serve  one 
another ;  and  let  the  people  learn  by  your  example  as  well  as 
by  your  power,  the  happy  life  of  concord." 

In  1691,  shortly  after  Blackwell's  return  to  England,  the 
dispute  between  the  province  and  the  three  counties  so  far  in 
creased,  that  the  latter  organized  a  separate  assembly.  Penn 
reluctantly  confirmed  Markham  as  the  deputy  of  the  new 


1691]  DELAWARE.  219 

commonwealth  of  DELAWARE,  while  Lloyd  accepted  the  same 
position  in  the  province  of  Pennsylvania.  The  proprietary 
felt  that  he  had  no  moral  warrant,  much  as  he  loved  unity,  to 
prevent  the  separation.  Lloyd  and  Markham,  with  their  re 
spective  councils,  joined  in  a  letter  to  Penn,  expressing  satis 
faction  at  the  change,  and  announcing  their  intention  to  act 
jointly  in  some  matters,  as  being  both  under  the  general  gov 
ernment  of  the  proprietary. 

There  arose  at  this  time  a  schism  in  the  religious  Society 
of  Friends  at  Philadelphia,  which  was  considered  as  much 
more  to  be  lamented  than  the  division  in  the  government. 
This  trouble  was  brought  about  by  George  Keith,  a  Scotch 
man,  who  had  been  surveyor-general  of  East  Jersey,  but  was 
now,  master  of  the  public  school  which  had  been  already 
established  at  Philadelphia. 

Keith  is  described  as  a  man  of  quick  natural  parts,  very 
ready  and  able  in  theological  disputations,  but  with  an  irrita 
ble  temper,  and  a  disposition  of  mind  not  sufficiently  tem 
pered  by  Christian  moderation.  He  had  been  a  trenchant 
defender  of  the  Society's  principles,  and  had  even  visited 
New  England  as  a  champion  of  its  doctrines  against  Cotton 
Mather  and  other  ministers  of  the  Puritans.  Upon  his  re 
turn,  in  an  elated  state  of  mind,  he  began  to  indulge  in  un 
warranted  accusations  and  unbecoming  language,  and  was 
thereupon  dismissed  from  the  Society.  Many  persons  agree 
ing  with  his  views,  they  set  up  separate  meetings,  styling 
themselves  Christian  Friends ;  but  their  erratic  leader  presently 
went  back  to  England,  where  he  joined  the  National  church 
and  wrote  many  passionate  things  against  his  former  associates. 

When  Keith  was  found  guilty  by  the  grand  jury  at  Philadelphia 
of  "  contempt  of  court,"  and  was  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine,  the 
Friends  forgave  him  the  penalty  lest  it  should  seem  to  the  general 
public  that  they  had  grown  intolerant,  and  were  persecuting  any 
one  because  of  difference  of  opinion. 


220  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1693 

Meanwhile,  William  Penn  had  been  diligently  employed 
in  England,  striving  to  relieve  his  fellow-members  from  the 
impositions  and  persecutions  under  which  they  still  labored  ; 
and,  since  he  was  high  in  favor  with  King  James,  he  had 
been  enabled  for  the  most  part  to  accomplish  that  object. 
But  upon  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  the  fact  of  his 
friendship  at  the  former  court  operated  against  him ;  so  that 
his  enemies,  taking  advantage  of  the  unsettlement  prevailing  in 
the  colonial  councils,  and  putting  the  matter  in  the  worst  light 
possible,  caused  him  to  be  deprived  of  both*  his  provinces. 
Thus  in  1693,  eleven  years  after  Philadelphia  was  founded, 
the  English  sovereigns  issued  a  commission  to  BENJAMIN 
FLETCHER,  governor  of  New  York,  to  take  control  of  the 
provinces  on  the  Delaware,  which  therefore  became  for  a 
while  re-united. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

THE   COLONIES    UNDER   WILLIAM   AND   MARY. 
1689 — 1702. 


THE   ENGLISH   AND    FRENCH    COLONIES   AT   WAR. 

ON  a  preceding  page  have  been  mentioned  the  unsuccessful 
attempts  of  De  la  Barre  and  Denonville,  the  French  com 
manders,  to  obtain  control  of  the  Niagara  region  and  the  Great 
Lakes,  and  to  intimidate  the  tribes  of  the  Iroquois  league. 
With  the  English  traders  of  Hudson's  Bay  on  the  north,  and 
those  of  New  York  on  the  south,  to  compete  with,  the  French 
became  more  and  more  concerned  lest  the  lucrative  fur-trade 
should  be  wrested  from  their  grasp.  They  chiefly  valued  New 
France  not  for  the  possible  products  of  its  soil,  but  because 
the  lakes  and  the  river  St.  Lawrence  were  a  highway  of  com 
merce  which  their  own  pioneers  had  opened,  and  whose  con 
trol  they  were  not  willing  to  surrender  to  any  other  nation. 
Hence  when  war  broke  out  between  England  and  France, 
in  1689,  the  northern  American  colonies  took  part  in  the 
struggle,  as  having  grievances  of  their  own  to  settle. 

BARON  CASTIN  of  Acadie  had  no  difficulty  in  persuading 
the  eastern  Indians  to  resume  the  war  against  the  New  Eng 
land  settlements.  Twelve  years  had  elapsed  since  Waldron 
had  dealt  them  those  treacherous  blows  already  related.  That 
officer  being  yet  at  Dover  in  command  of  a  garrison,  a  party 
of  the  natives  made  an  onslaught  upon  the  place,  killed  or 
made  prisoners  about  fifty  of  the  inhabitants,  and  put  Wal- 

19*  221 


222  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1690 

dron  (now  an  old  man  of  80)  to  death  with  tortures.  The 
village  was  then  burned,,  as  was  likewise  the  fort  which  Andros 
had  recently  built  at  Pemaquid  on  the  coast ;  in  short,  all  the 
settlements  east  of  Casco  bay  to  the  Penobscot,  were  once 
again  ravaged  and  broken  up. 

There  was  no  scruple  on  the  part  either  of  English  Protes 
tants  or  French  Papists,  against  engaging  the  Indians  to  aid 
them  in  their  sanguinary  schemes.  While  French  vessels 
cruised  off  the  coast  of  New  England,  making  many  prizes, 
the  Count  de  Frontenac  despatched  a  war-party  composed  of  a 
body  of  "  converted' '  Indians,  so  called,  and  a  few  Frenchmen, 
to  surprise  Schenectady  on  the  river  Mohawk — the  northern 
most  English  outpost.  Unguarded  and  unsuspicious  of  evil 
the  inhabitants  slept,  when  suddenly  the  terrible  war-whoop 
was  heard ;  in  a  moment  the  doors  were  broken  open,  the 
women  and  children  massacred  and  the  village  set  on  fire. 
Some  were  carried  away  prisoners,  while  those  who  escaped 
fled  through  a  driving  snow-storm  toward  Albany,  enduring 
bitter  sufferings  ere  that  place  was  reached.  It  was  surely 
not  Christ's  religion  that  these  "converts"  were  being  taught: 
but,  were  they  or  their  teachers  most  guilty? 

Frontenac's  second  war-party  crossed  the  mountains  (1690) 
from  Canada  to  the  upper  Connecticut  river  valley,  thence 
across  the  White  Mountain  region  to  the  frontier  village  of 
Salmon  Falls  on  the  Piscataqua.  As  at  Schenectady,  this 
place  also  was  taken  by  surprise,  the  men  mostly  murdered, 
and  the  women  and  children  made  captive.  The  houses, 
and  the  barns  with  cattle  in  them,  were  destroyed  by  fire. 
Then  with  their  prisoners  and  spoils  of  war,  the  victors  being 
joined  by  another  party  from  Quebec,  moved  across  to  Casco 
in  Maine.  Fortunately,  its  inhabitants,  by  surrendering  as 
prisoners  of  war,  escaped  the  dreadful  doom  which  had  over 
taken  the  other  two  places. 


1690]  SIR    WILLIAM  PHIPPS.  223 

SIR   WILLIAM   PHIPPS.     FLETCHER.     BELLAMONT. 

Immediately  after  these  onslaughts,  New  York  and  the  New 
England  colonies  organized  for  a  counter-attack  on  the  settle 
ments  of  the  French.  Massachusetts  sent  out  a  naval  expe 
dition  under  SIR  WILLIAM  PHIPPS,  a  native  of  Pemaquid,  who 
is  celebrated  as  being  one  of  26  children  borne  of  the  same 
mother.  Phipps  sailed  at  once  to  Port  Royal  and  the  other 
Acadian  settlements,  which  he  plundered  to  an  extent  suffi 
cient  to  pay  all  the  expenses  of  the  expedition.  Meanwhile 
two  English  privateers  from  the  West  Indies  appeared,  and 
Port  Royal  was  devastated  a  second  time. 

At  the  accession  of  William  and  Mary,  two  years  before 
this  time,  JACOB  LEISLER,  a  merchant  of  New  York,  supported 
by  a  faction,  had  been  installed  as  governor  of  that  province, 
a  position  which  he  still  occupied.  A  land  force  was  sent 
out  by  Leisler,  which  was  joined  by  troops  from  Connecticut ; 
the  whole  being  commanded  by  Fitz-John  Winthrop,  son  of 
Connecticut's  late  governor.  Part  of  these,  with  some  Mo 
hawks,  marched  against  Montreal,  but  they  were  repulsed  by 
Frontenac  and  his  Indian  allies.  The  other  detachment, 
being  wasted  by  smallpox,  and  lacking  provisions,  also  re 
turned.  Upon  the  arrival  of  Colonel  HENRY  SLOUGHTER, 
appointed  to  the  governorship  by  King  William,  Leisler,  and 
his  son-in-law  Milbourne,  were  arrested  for  high  treason,  and 
their  enemies  being  very  bitter  against  them,  they  were  con 
demned  to  death  on  the  gallows. 

Sir  William  Phipps,  with  a  fleet  of  35  vessels,  ascended  the 
St.  Lawrence  to  Quebec,  but  being  nine  weeks  on  the  voyage 
up  the  river,  Frontenac  had  time  to  prepare  for  the  attack 
of  the  English,  who  soon  abandoned  the  enterprise.  Captain 
Church,  who  had  gained  notoriety  in  King  Philip's  war,  pro 
ceeded  against  the  Eastern  Indians  in  Maine,  and  having 
taken  some  prisoners,  men,  women  and  children,  put  them 


224  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1697 

to  death,  as  he  declared,  "  for  the  sake  of  example."  But  the 
Indians  remembered  that  they  had  not  put  to  death  those  who 
surrendered  to  them  at  Casco,  and  now  lost  no  opportunity 
to  retaliate  on  the  whites.  All  the  towns  of  Maine  suffered 
from  their  attacks,  and  many  of  them  were  abandoned. 

After  this,  Phipps  having  gone  to  England,  returned,  in 
1692,  with  a  commission  as  governor.  He  also  brought  anew 
charter  for  Massachusetts,  by  which  Plymouth  colony,  and 
Maine  as  far  as  the  Penobscot,  were  united  with  the  former 
under  one  jurisdiction.  Toleration  was  expressly  secured -to 
all  religious  sects  except  Papists.  The  French  at  this  time 
had  recoyered  possession  of  Port  Royal ;  and  the  Eastern  In 
dians  being  supplied  with  arms  and  ammunition  from  that 
quarter,  the  frontier  continued  to  be  much  harassed  by  their 
depredations.  Phipps  had  little  opportunity  to  take  further 
part  in  the  war,  for,  being  accused  of  misdemeanor,  he  was 
summoned  to  England  for  trial. 

Fletcher  having  been  appointed  (1693)  governor  of  the 
provinces  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware,  a  royal 
letter  was  sent  to  all  the  colonies  except  Carolina,  urging 
them  to  furnish  assistance  in  men  or  money  for  the  defence 
of  the  northern  frontier.  The  Friends  in  Pennsylvania,  be 
lieving  all  war  to  be  unlawful,  and  being  conscious  that  they 
themselves  had  treated  both  the  Indians  and  whites  as  breth 
ren,  and  had  naught  of  enmity  to  fear,  demurred  making  any 
appropriation.  Fletcher  wrote  to  them  that  he  ''hoped  they 
would  not  refuse  to  feed  the  hungry  and  clothe  the  naked  ;" 
meaning,  as  he  explained,  that  they  should  conciliate  the  In 
dians  with  presents,  and  not  let  them  go  over  to  the  French. 
But  he  obtained  from  them  no  more  than  the  grant  of  a  small 
sum  of  money,  which  it  was  stipulated  "  should  not  be  dipped 
in  blood."  This  disastrous  seven  years'  war  was  terminated 
in  1697,  when  the  peace  of  RYSWICK  between  England  and 
France  was  proclaimed,  by  which  it  was  agreed,  so  far  as  re- 


1699]  BELLAMONT.  225 

spected   their   American    territories,  that  each  should  retain 
what  it  possessed  before  war  was  declared. 

The  EARL  OF  BELLAMONT,  an  Irish  nobleman  of  affable 
address  and  popular  manners,  wtas  sent  over  in  1698,  as  gov 
ernor  of  both  New  York  and  Massachusetts, — Pennsylvania, 
in  the  meantime,  having  been  remanded  to  William  Penn,  its 
proprietor.  New  Hampshire,  for  forty  years  thenceforward, 
also  continued  to  have  the  same  governors  as  Massachusetts. 
Upon  arriving  in  New  York,  Bellamont  caused  Fletcher  to  be 
sent  back  to  England  under  arrest,  as  it  was  believed  that  he 
connived  at  violations  of  the  acts  of  trade,  as  well  as  favored 
the  buccaneers  who  still  frequented  the  American  harbors. 
Captain  Kidd,  who  had  been  given  command  of  a  vessel 
specially  fitted  out  to  re-capture  prizes  which  had  been  taken 
by  the  pirates,  himself  turned  freebooter,  and  entered  upon 
that  bold  career  of  robbery  upon  the  high  seas,  which  was 
only  terminated  by  his  death  upon  the  gallows. 

In  Boston,  Bellamont  became  so  much  a  favorite  that  the 
general  court  voted  him  the  extravagant  compensation  of 
$7500  the  first  year,  although  under  the  old  charter  the  gov 
ernor's  salary  had  been  but  a  small  fraction  of  that  figure. 
Bellamont  died  in  1701,  at  New  York,  whither  he  had  gone 
to  attend  to  the  enforcement  of  the  royal  navigation  acts. 
Laws  favoring  the  execution  of  these  acts  were  reluctantly 
passed  by  Connecticut  and  Rhode  Island.  In  the  latter  state, 
SAMUEL  CRANSTON,  who  was  chosen  governor  in  1698,  was 
annually  re-elected  for  twenty-eight  years. 

William  Penn,  who  had  returned  to  his  province  in  1699, 
called  an  assembly  which  readily  acceded  to  his  wish,  in  pass 
ing  laws  for  the  suppression  of  piracy  and  illegal  trade.  Soon 
afterward,  he  granted  them  a  new  "charter  of  privileges," 
by  which  the  power  of  legislation  was  vested  in  a  governor, 
and  in  an  assembly  to  be  chosen  annually  by  the  freemen  of 
the  province. 
K* 


226  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1688 

Penn  remained  only  two  years  in  Pennsylvania;  but  before 
his  second  and  last  departure,  he  met  in  council  the  chiefs  of 
the  Five  Nations,  besides  the  Potomacs,  the  Susquehannahs 
and  the  Shawnees,  and  covenanted  with  them  that  there 
should  be  a  firm  and  lasting  peace  between  both  races,  and 
that  they  should  all  live  in  true  friendship  and  amity  as  one 
people.  Regulations  were  adopted  to  govern  their  trade,  and 
the  former  purchases  of  land  were  confirmed.  Penn  left  the 
management  of  his  estates  and  of  the  Indian  matters,  in  the 
hands  of  James  Logan,  colonial  secretary  and  member  of  the 
council.  But  the  expenses  attending  the  settling  and  im 
proving  of  the  colony  were  so  heavy,  that  Penn  was  obliged 
to  borrow  several  thousand  pounds,  and  to  mortgage  his 
province  for  the  debt.  Delaware  was  quietly  permitted  to 
again  form  a  separate  government  in  1702.  In  the  same  year 
East  and  West  Jersey  became  united  as  a  single  province, 
with  LORD  CORNBURY,  Bellamont's  successor,  as  royal  gov 
ernor. 

THE   SALEM   WITCHCRAFT. 

The  six  years  from  1688  to  1693,  were  memorable  in  New 
England  history,  not  only  on  account  of  the  unhappy  war 
which  has  just  been  related,  but  because  of  the  prevalence  of 
a  popular  delusion  which  has  since  been  spoken  of  as  the 
Salem  witchcraft. 

The  alleged  witches  were  generally  ill-favored  or  bad-tem 
pered  old  women,  who  were  believed  to  have  made  a  bargain 
with  the  Evil  One, — trading  away  their  souls  for  the  privilege 
of  working  mischief  to  their  neighbors.  By  the  Massachu 
setts  law,  witchcraft,  like  murder  and  many  other  offences, 
was  a  capital  crime,  the  warrant  for  which  punishment  they 
adduced  from  the  Old  Testament  scripture,  where  it  is  de 
clared,  "Thou  shalt  not  suffer  a  witch  to  live."  Prominent 
in  the  belief  in  these  supernatural  manifestations  were  IN- 


1692]  THE  SALEM   WITCHCRAFT.  227 

CREASE  MATHER  and  his  son  COTTON  MATHER,  Puritan 
clergymen  of  Boston. 

In  the  latter  city,  four  children  in  one  family  began  to  be 
have  in  a  very  singular  manner:  barking,  purring,  undergoing 
contortions,  and  seeming  to  become  at  times  either  deaf,  blind, 
or  dumb,  or  else  crying  out  that  they  were  being  pinched, 
jerked  about,  and  cut  at.  The  ministers  declared  that  the 
children  were  certainly  bewitched  ;  for,  precisely  in  the  same 
manner,  they  said,  had  afflicted  ones  been  tormented  in  Eng 
land.  An  old  Irish  servant,  living  in  the  family,  was  fastened 
upon  as  being  the  culprit  witch,  and,  upon  trial,  was  declared 
guilty  and  speedily  hung.  Young  Cotton  Mather  took  the 
eldest  of  the  "bewitched"  children  to  his  own  house,  and 
being  duped  by  her  artfulness,  and  witnessing  many  strange 
things,  he  believed  them  sufficiently  wonderful  to  set  forth  in 
a  book,  which  he  presently  published. 

Several  years  later  (1692)  the  witch-distemper  re-appeared  ; 
this  time  at  Salem  village  or  Danvers,  where  two  young  girls, 
a  daughter  and  a  niece  of  the  village  minister,  began  to  ex 
hibit  peculiar  symptoms,  very  similar  to  those  witnessed  in 
the  former  case.  Tituba,  a  servant  of  the  family — an  Indian 
woman,  old  and  wrinkled — was  pronounced  to  be  the  witch. 
A  general  fast  and  time  of  prayer  were  proclaimed  by  the 
ministers  ;  nevertheless  the  so-called  witches  and  their  victims 
so  increased,  that,  in  alarm,  a  magistrate's  court  was  ordered  to 
be  convened  in  the  village.  Not  only  Tituba,  but  many  other 
women  of  weak  or  fearful  minds,  were  frightened  into  con 
fessing  that  they  were  witches,  who  had  signed  the  "devil's 
book"  and  been  baptized  by  him.  In  a  short  time  there 
were  nearly  a  hundred  persons  confined  in  prison  upon  the 
charge. 

A  special  court  for  Witch  Trials,  presided  over  by  Governor 
Phipps  himself,  was  now  ordered.  Four  sessions  were  held  in 
four  months,  at  which  over  fifty  persons,  most  of  them  old 


228  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1692 

women,  were  convicted,  and  twenty  of  them  were  hung. 
Every  day  new  accusations  appeared.  A  second  book  pub 
lished  by  Cotton  Mather,  called  "Wonders  of  the  Invisible 
World,"  contained  triumphant  accounts  of  the  late  trials  and 
executions,  and  served  to  spread  the  excitement  and  terror 
broadcast. 

But  the  strange  fever  was  destined  soon  to  subside ;  for, 
there  having  been  accusations  started  against  some  persons 
of  acknowledged  excellent  repute,  the  voice  of  reason  and 
good  sense  began  at  last  to  be  listened  to.  Some  who  had 
confessed  to  being  witches  renounced  that  admission  as  having 
been  forced  from  them ;  the  court  refused  to  convict  those 
brought  before  it ;  and  finally,  King  William's  veto  of  the 
witchcraft  act  put  an  end  to  the  trials. 

MARYLAND   AND   VIRGINIA. 

In  the  province  of  Maryland,  the  news  of  the  accession  of 
William  and  Mary  created  much  agitation,  the  majority  of 
the  population  being  favorably  inclined  to  the  Protestant  sov 
ereigns.  The  wide  prevalence  of  this  sentiment  was  taken 
advantage  of  by  some  turbulent  spirits,  who  attacked  the 
town  of  St.  Mary's,  captured  its  fort  St.  Inigo,  and  proclaimed 
the  government  of  William  and  Mary,  in  opposition  to  the 
Catholic  proprietary.  The  latter,  chiefly  upon  the  ground  of 
his  being  a  papist,  was,  as  Penn  had  been,  for  awhile  deprived 
of  his  province,  although  permitted  to  receive  his  quit-rents, 
tonnage  duty  and  other  income. 

The  assembly  then  called  together  (1692)  by  LIONEL  COP 
LEY,  the  royal  governor,  made  a  radical  alteration  in  the 
ecclesiastical  constitution  of  the  province,  which  theretofore 
had  been  tolerant  of  all  religious  sects,  none  being  allowed 
either  state  support  or  pre-eminence.  This  equitable  provision 
was  now  changed  to  the  establishment  by  law  of  the  national 


1698]  MARYLAND  AND    VIRGINIA,  229 

English  church,  the  province  being  divided  into  parishes,  and 
every  taxable  inhabitant  obliged  to  pay  for  the  support  of  the 
dominant  sect.  The  new  law  was  especially  burdensome  to 
the  Friends  and  Catholics,  the  latter  being  forbidden,  by  an 
enactment  made  a  few  years  later,  either  to  preach  or  to  teach. 
Copley's  successor,  NICHOLSON,  removed  the  capital,  in  1694, 
from  St.  Mary's  to  the  new  town  of  Annapolis,  the  present 
seat  of  government  of  the  state. 

Previous  to  his  appointment  as  governor  of  Maryland, 
Nicholson  had  held  the  office  of  deputy  or  lieutenant-gov 
ernor  of  Virginia,  under  Lord  Howard  of  Effingham,  who 
had  returned  to  England.  A  conspicuous  personage  in  the 
colony  at  that  time,  and  for  half  a  century  following,  was 
JAMES  BLAIR,  a  Scotchman,  who  had  come  to  Virginia  as  a 
missionary  preacher,  but  soon  received  a  commission  as  a  sort 
of  religious-director  or  legate  for  the  bishop  of  London.  It 
was  through  Commissary  Blair's  influence  that  a  charter  was 
obtained  in  1691,  locating  at  Williamsburg  the  William  and 
Mary  College, — the  chief  purpose  of  that  institution  being  to 
educate  ministers  of  the  established  church,  for  service  in  the 
colony.  The  buildings  were  erected  after  plans  furnished  by 
the  celebrated  architect,  Sir  Christopher  Wren. 

Upon  the  appointment  of  Sir  Edmund  Andros  (1692)  to 
succeed  Governor  Effingham,  Nicholson  lost  his  lieutenancy, 
and,  as  has  been  stated,  became  for  a  short  time  governor  of 
Maryland.  But  Andros  was  scarcely  more  popular  in  Vir 
ginia  than  he  had  been  in  New  England,  and  upon  his  recall 
Nicholson  received  a  commission  as  his  successor.  Having 
changed  Maryland's  capital,  he  successfully  essayed  the  same 
thing  in  Virginia.  Jamestown,  ruined  village  that  it  was, 
was  deserted  in  1698,  and  Williamsburg,  with  its  streets  very 
loyally  laid  out  in  the  shape  of  the  cipher  W  and  M,  took  its 
place  as  the  seat  of  government. 

20 


230  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1693 

JOHN   ARCHDALE,   OF   CAROLINA. 

The  efforts  of  Governor  Golleton  to  reconcile  the  conflict 
ing  interests  of  the  proprietors  and  the  colonists  of  South 
Carolina,  had  been  totally  unsuccessful.  Colleton  was  suc 
ceeded  (1691)  by  PHILIP  LUDWELL,  to  u  horn  was  also  intrusted 
the  governorship  of  the  Albemarle  settlements,  made  vacant 
by  the  banishment  of  Seth  Sothel.  Ludwell  attempted  to 
bring  to  justice  a  number  of  buccaneers  who  had  been  arrested 
at  Charleston,  which  place  had  become  one  of  their  favorite 
resorts ;  but  this  commendable  act  was  resented  by  some  of 
the  traders  and  planters  as  an  interference  with  a  very  profit 
able  branch  of  trade.  These  buccaneers  were  mostly  English, 
who  depredated  upon  the  Spanish  commerce  and  towns,  and, 
in  return  for  supplies  afforded  them,  spent  their  golden  spoils 
with  a  lavish  hand. 

Another  wicked  practice  carried  on  by  the  planters,  and 
usually  connived  at  by  the  governors,  was  the  traffic  in  Indian 
captives.  The  spirit  of  discord  among  the  native  tribes  was 
fomented,  wars  followed,  and  the  luckless  captives  being 
brought  down  to  Charleston,  were  disposed  of  to  traders 
from  the  West  Indies.  But  the  evil  practice  carried  with  it 
the  seeds  of  retribution,  inasmuch  as  the  traders,  in  exchange 
for  the  captives,  imported  large  quantities  of  rum  from  Ber 
muda  and  the  Barbadoes,  thus  fostering  a  custom  depraving 
to  the  manners  and  destructive  to  the  habits  of  industry  of 
many  of  the  colonists. 

Governor  Ludwell  favored  the  enfranchisement  of  the  Hu 
guenots,  who  now  formed  a  numerous  and  intelligent  portion 
of  the  population ;  but  this  measure  the  Cavaliers  violently 
opposed.  Hence  Ludwell,  wearied  by  the  constant  opposi 
tion  which  he  encountered,  resigned  his  office  in  1693.  After 
a  lapse  of  two  years,  Lord  Ashley,  a  grandson  of  Shaftesbury, 
having  declined  to  accept  the  proffered  office  of  governor,  it 


1693]  JOHN  ARCH  DALE,   OF  CAROLINA.  231 

was  conferred  upon  JOHN  ARCHDALE,  a  member  of  the  Society 
of  Friends,  and  a  proprietary  by  purchase.  He  was  a  man 
very  similar  to  William  Penn  in  administrative  ability,  and, 
like  him,  was  possessed  of  great  prudence  and  sagacity, 
united  with  admirable  patience  and  command  of  temper. 
With  marvellous  celerity  he  restrained  the  lawless  spirit  of 
turbulence,  suppressed  abuses,  and  stilled  the  tumult  of  con 
tending  factions. 

Archdale  organized  at  once  a  council  of  sensible  and  mod 
erate  men,  and  called  together  the  representative  assembly. 
An  address  of  grateful  thanks  voted  by  this  body  to  the  pro 
prietaries — the  first  expression  of  such  sentiments  ever  uttered 
in  Carolina — "attests,"  says  Grahame,  "the  wisdom  and  be 
nignity  of  Archdale's  administration,  and  justifies  the  opinion, 
that,  notwithstanding  the  inflammable  materials  of  which  the 
provincial  society  was  composed,  only  a  good  domestic  gov 
ernment  had  been  hitherto  wanting  to  render  the  colony 
flourishing  and  happy." 

Having  quieted  the  spirit  of  turbulence,  this  excellent 
pacificator  endeavored  to  promote  a  better  feeling  toward  the 
Huguenots,  being  careful  not  to  advocate  for  them  the  imme 
diate  right  of  suffrage,  but  rather  sought  to  awaken  public 
generosity  toward  the  refugees  by  warmly  commending  them 
to  the  hospitality  and  compassion  of  his  countrymen.  Yet 
he  did  not  leave  the  work  only  half-done;  for  to  the  refugees 
themselves,  he  advised  "a  patient  perseverance  in  those  vir 
tues  that  tend  to  disarm  human  enmity,  and  by  the  actual  ex 
ercise  of  which  they  were  enabled  shortly  after  to  overcome 
the  aversion,  and  even  conciliate  the  friendly  regards,  of  their 
fellow-countrymen." 

No  less  successful  was  Archdale  in  correcting  those  abuses 
from  which  the  Indians  had  been  such  grievous  sufferers.  He 
appointed  magistrates  to  settle  cases  of  dispute  between  them 
selves  and  the  settlers,  as  had  been  done  in  Pennsylvania. 


232  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1696 

Some  Indians  who  had  been  captured  by  another  tribe  and 
were  about  to  be  sold  to  the  Islands  as  slaves,  he  caused  to  be 
returned  to  their  homes.  And,  as  honest,  straight-forward 
treatment  begets  its  like,  so  it  happened  that  shortly  after  the 
above  incident,  an  English  vessel  being  wrecked  upon  the 
coast,  the  crew  of  which  expected  to  be  murdered  and  their 
cargo  plundered  as  had  formerly  been  the  practice,  were,  on 
the  contrary,  kindly  cared  for  by  the  natives,  and  safely  con 
ducted  to  their  friends.  In  the  spiritual  welfare  of  the 
natives,  Archdale  was  much  interested,  regretting  the  fact 
that  his  countrymen  were  so  generally  more  greedy  after  the 
Indians'  land  than  they  were  concerned  for  the  salvation  of 
their  souls. 

These  honorable  methods  of  treatment  were  not  lost  upon 
the  neighboring  Spaniards,  who  now  expressed  for  the  first 
time  a  desire  to  maintain  friendly  relations  with  the  English. 
Of  course,  in  the  Albemarle  settlements,  where  were  many 
Friends,  Archdale's  administration  gave  equal  satisfaction. 
But  it  was  not  his  design  to  remain  in  the  country  longer  than 
was  required  to  reform  abuses  and  quiet  the  spirit  of  contro 
versy  ;  hence,  having  accomplished  those  ends  to  an  extent 
exceeding  all  expectation,  he  returned  to  England  in  the  latter 
part  of  1696,  having  earned  the  grateful  thanks  of  all  the 
people. 

To  Archdale  had  been  given  the  extraordinary  privilege 
of  nominating  his  successor.  In  making  choice  of  JOSEPH 
BLAKE,  nephew  of  the  English  admiral,  for  this  position, 
Archdale  continued  the  beneficent  results  of  his  own  admin 
istration  ;  for  Blake  was  a  man  of  prudence  and  moderation, 
and  governed  the  province  for  four  years  much  to  the  satis 
faction  of  the  colonists.  But  under  JAMES  MOORE  and  NA 
THANIEL  JOHNSON,  the  two  governors  who  succeeded  Blake, 
were  exhibited  the  unhappy  results  of  an  opposite  line  of 
policy  from  the  foregoing.  Again  were  the  Indians  kid- 


1729]  THE    WRONG   POLICY  RENEWED.  233 

napped,  to  be  sold  as  slaves,  and  again  was  war  made  against 
the  Spaniards  of  St.  Augustine.  But  the  expedition  which 
was  sent  (1702)  to  capture  that  place  proved  unsuccessful;  the 
colony  moreover  was  brought  into  debt,  and,  of  necessity, 
heavier  taxes  were  imposed. 

The  principal  Indian  tribes  surrounding  the  English  plan 
tations  were  the  Tuscaroras  on  the  north,  the  Yamassees  and 
Catawbas  on  the  west,  and  the  Cherokees  and  Creeks  beyond, 
between  the  Ohio  and  the  Gulf.  In  upper  Florida  were  the 
Appalachees,  where  Spanish  missionaries  had  established 
churches  and  instructed  the  natives  in  agriculture.  Against 
this  tribe  the  Creeks,  aided  by  a  few  of  the  English,  pro 
ceeded  in  1705.  They  plundered  the  Indian  villages,  burnt 
the  chapels,  and  gave  the  country  of  the  Appalachees  to  the 
lower  tribe  of  Creeks,  called  the  Seminoles. 

In  addition  to  these  wars,  and  the  dissatisfaction  occasioned 
by  the  laying  of  taxes  and  the  issue  of  paper  money,  there 
arose  religious  disputes  engendered  by  unjust  laws  against  the 
Dissenters.  Against  the  protest  of  Archdale,  who  was  yet  a 
proprietary,  the  national  Church  of  England  was  established, 
although  not  a  third  of  the  inhabitants  were  of  that  denomi 
nation.  The  country  was  divided  into  parishes  as  had  already 
been  done  in  Virginia  and  Maryland.  From  this  time  forth 
the  proprietary  government  gave  little  satisfaction,  and  in  a 
few  years  (1729)  its  connection  with  the  province  was  dis 
solved  and  its  chartered  interests  sold  to  the  crown. 

A  little  bag  of  rice,  presented  by  the  master  of  a  vessel 
from  Madagascar  to  a  Charlestonian  (1694),  marked  the  in 
troduction  into  South  Carolina  of  its  most  distinctive  staple. 
The  sea-island  (or  black-seed)  cotton,  so  superior  on  account 
of  its  long  and  silky  fibre  to  the  green-seed  or  short  staple 
previously  planted,  was  introduced  about  1790,  the  first  crop 
being  raised  on  Hilton  Head,  near  Beaufort.  The  seed  was 

brought  from  the  Bahamas  to  Georgia  six  years  earlier. 

20  * 


CHAPTER    XVIII. 

THE   WAR   IN   THE   REIGN   OF   QUEEN   ANNE. 
1702 — 1714. 


LOUISIANA    SETTLED    BY   THE   FRENCH. 

A  BRIEF  period  of  five  years  only  elapsed  between  the  peace 
of  Ryswick  in  1697,  and  the  renewal  of  the  struggle  between 
the  English  and  French  colonies  of  America.  It  was  during 
this  transient  interval  of  repose,  that  the  French  undertook 
the  settlement  of  the  country  adjacent  to  the  lower  Mississippi, 
upon  which  La  Salle  had  conferred  the  name  of  Louisiana. 

A  Canadian  named  D'!BERVILLE,  with  two  hundred  men  in 
several  vessels,  sailed  for  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  (1699),  and 
would  have  landed  at  the  bay  of  Pensacola,  but  that  the 
Spaniards  were  found  already  intrenched  upon  that  excellent 
harbor.  The  French,  therefore,  continued  farther  westward, 
and  upon  the  shores  of  the  bay  of  Biloxi,  within  the  limits 
of  the  present  state  of  Mississippi,  they  built  a  fort  and  erected 
a  number  of  huts.  The  Spaniards  at  first  complained  of  this 
as  an  intrusion  upon  their  territory  of  Florida,  but,  as  a  royal 
alliance  at  this  time  transferred  the  Spanish  throne  to  a  French 
prince,  all  serious  opposition  was  turned  aside.  D'Iberville 
went  several  times  to  France  for  fresh  settlers  and  supplies, 
and,  aided  by  two  of  his  brothers,  explored  the  various  intri 
cate  outlets  of  the  Mississippi,  ascended  that  stream  and  the 
Red  river,  and  also  effected  a  treaty  with  the  neighboring 
Indians. 
234 


1704]  THE  DEERFIELD  MASSACRE.  235 

Since  the  time  of  La  Salle,  the  French  missionaries  and 
traders  had  not  been  slow  in  following  upon  the  track  of  that 
discoverer,  and  at  a  number  of  points  upon  the  banks  of  the 
Mississippi  little  settlements  had  been  established.  It  was 
soon  found  that  Biloxi  was  not  well  situated  for  becoming  a 
flourishing  settlement,  and  accordingly  most  of  the  settlers 
removed  eastward,  and  located  in  1702  at  the  head  of  the 
broad  bay  of  MOBILE.  In  the  north,  and  nearly  at  the  same 
time  (1701)  there  was  founded  by  the  French  the  city  of 
DETROIT,  eligibly  situated  upon  the  strait  through  which  the 
waters  of  Lake  Huron  find  an  outlet  into  Lake  Erie. 

The  French  had  now  control  of  the  great  interior  water 
ways  of  the  country,  and,  with  their  new  allies  the  Spaniards, 
it  would  thus  appear  that  the  English  colonies  would  be  de 
barred  from  expansion  upon  every  side, — north,  south  and 
westward.  Yet  these  territorial  pretensions  of  the  French 
would  probably  have  been  insufficient  to  cause  a  rupture  of 
the  existing  state  of  peace,  had  it  not  been  for  the  breaking 
out  of  the  war  which  England,  in  alliance  with  Holland  and 
Germany,  declared  against  France  and  Spain.  Whereupon 
the  colonies,  their  children,  were  drawn  into  the  bloody  vor 
tex,  just  as  they  had  been  before. 

BARBARITIES   OF   THE   WAR   IN    NEW   ENGLAND. 

As  the  Five  Nations  had  recently  entered  into  an  agreement 
of  amity  with  the  French,  and  had  admitted  the  Jesuit  mis 
sionaries  among  them,  they  could  not  be  prevailed  on  by  the 
English,  their  former  allies,  to  aid  them  in  their  operations 
against  Canada.  Thus  the  harrowed  field  of  war  was  transferred 
to  New  England,  where  a  massacre  by  Canadians  and  Indians, 
at  the  frontier  town  of  Deerfield  (1704),  spread  terror  into  the 
hearts  of  the  English.  The  same  Captain  Church,  who  had 
been  prominent  in  the  preceding  war,  as  well  as  in  the  war 


236  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1708 

of  King  Philip,  was  despatched  by  Governor  DUDLEY  of  Mas 
sachusetts  against  the  French  habitations  on  the  Penobscot 
and  to  the  eastward.  An  English  frigate,  at  the  same  time, 
carried  a  thousand  men  against  Acadie.  They  could  not 
capture  the  fort  at  Port  Royal,  but  the  houses  of  the  town 
were  burnt,  the  cattle  killed,  and  the  corn  which  grew  luxu 
riantly  upon  the  neighboring  flats,  was  destroyed  by  cutting 
through  the  dams  and  allowing  the  water  to  inundate  the 
fields.  Yet  the  English  had  little  cause  to  rejoice  at  this  de 
vastation,  for  in  the  following  year  (1708)  there  was  another 
incursion  of  the  French  and  Indians  from  Canada.  Descend 
ing  the  valley  of  the  Merrimac,  they  surprised  the  town  of 
Haverhill  in  the  night,  massacred  about  50  of  the  inhabitants, 
and  plundered  and  burnt  their  habitations. 

Massachusetts  urgently  appealed  to  Queen  Anne  and  to  the 
other  colonies  for  help.  The  rest  of  New  England,  as  well 
as  New  York  and  New  Jersey  responded  to  the  call,  but  the 
Pennsylvania  legislature,  still  influenced  by  the  counsels  of 
peace,  replied  that  "they  could  not,  in  conscience,  provide 
money  to  hire  men  to  kill  each  other."  Two  ships  of  war 
and  500  marines  having  been  sent  from  England,  were  joined 
by  the  transports  carrying  the  colonial  troops.  Nicholson, 
late  governor  of  Virginia,  commanded  the  -squadron  which 
now  proceeded  against,  and  captured,  the  fort  at  Port  Royal; 
while  the  various  Acadian  settlements  were  visited  in  turn, 
and  made  to  feel  the  harsh  displeasure  of  the  conquerors. 

The  "victories"  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough  at  Blen 
heim  and  other  hard-fought  fields  of  carnage,  had  driven  a 
large  number  of  Germans  from  their  homes,  many  of  whom 
had  gone  to  England.  Several  thousand  of  these  fugitives, 
apprenticed  as  servants  of  the  government,  were  at  this  time 
sent  over  to  the  banks  of  the  Hudson,  but  they  became  dis 
satisfied  with  their  condition  as  contrasted  with  the  free  set 
tlers,  and  force  was  used  by  the  governor  of  New  York  to 


1713]  BARBARITIES   OF  THE   WAR.  237 

compel  them  to  submit.  Yet  their  subsistence  proved  very 
expensive  to  the  government,  in  fact  far  beyond  the  product 
of  their  labor.  Finally,  their  indentures  being  cancelled, 
they  became  thriving  and  industrious,  and  removed  to  the 
upper  waters  of  the  Mohawk,  where  their  fertile  plantations 
became  known  as  the  "  German  Flats."  Many  of  the  same 
nationality  also  settled  in  compact  bodies  upon  rich  lands  in 
Pennsylvania,  where  they  retain  their  language  and  manners 
even  to  the  present  time. 

In  1711,  a  much  larger  armament  than  the  preceding,  was 
sent  against  Canada,  several  regiments  from  Marlborough's 
army  being  despatched  from  England  to  join  the  provincial 
troops.  Over  50  vessels,  carrying  7000  men,  sailed  from 
Boston,  and  entered  the  St.  Lawrence.  A  lesser  body  of 
land  troops  under  Nicholson,  joined  by  warriors  of  the  Five 
Nations,  who  had  been  finally  persuaded  to  take  part  in  the 
contest,  assembled  at  Albany,  preparatory  to  an  attack  upon 
Montreal.  It  was  intended  that  the  attack  of  the  land  and 
naval  forces  should  be  simultaneous  j  but  this  expectation  was 
not  destined  to  be  realized,  owing  to  the  wreck  of  a  number 
of  the  transports  in  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  loss  of  nearly 
a  thousand  men.  Dispirited  by  this  calamity,  the  English 
admiral  re-crossed  the  Atlantic,  while  the  colonial  transports 
sailed  back  to  Boston. 

This  second  war  had  been  in  several  respects  a  counterpart 
of  the  first :  numerous  barbarities  and  burnings  by  whites 
and  Indians ;  a  similar  attack  upon  and  plundering  of  Port 
Royal ;  a  like  rebuff,  not  by  man,  but  by  the  adverse  winds 
and  waters  of  the  great  Canadian  river.  The  peace  of 
UTRECHT,  in  1713,  shortly  before  the  death  of  Queen  Anne, 
put  an  end  to  the  protracted  contest.  As  part  of  its  provi 
sions,  Hudson's  Bay,  Newfoundland  and  Acadie  or  Nova 
Scotia,  were  ceded  by  the  French  to  the  English. 

But  were  they  worth  the  price  paid  ?     The  resources  of  the 


238  HISTORY  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES.  [1712 

colonies  were  greatly  diminished,  while  their  growth  was  cor 
respondingly  checked  ;  many  fields  were  untilled  and  extensive 
tracts  had  been  desolated  ;  several  thousand  of  the  young 
men,  the  "  flower  of  the  country,"  had  been  slain  or  had  died 
of  diseases  contracted  in  the  service.  Between  the  Piscataqua 
and  Penobscot,  a  third  of  the  inhabitants  had  fallen  in  the 
war.  Most  of  the  families  in  New  York  and  New  England 
were  mourning  for  friends  either  killed  or  carried  away  into 
a  miserable  captivity. 

In  England  itself,  the  whole  nation  for  a  hundred  and  sixty  years 
past  has  felt  the  burden  of  what  the  historian  calls  the  "splendid 
victories  of  Blenheim,  Ramillies,  Oudenarde,"  etc.  Fifty  million 
pounds  sterling  were  then  added  to  the  English  national  debt. 
Thus  year  by  year,  through  the  centuries,  must  millions  of  men 
toil  and  be  taxed  to  pay  for  the  costly  folly  of  kings. 

The  treaty  of  Utrecht,  amongst  other  concessions  to  England, 
gave  to  that  country  the  exclusive  privilege  of  introducing  negro 
slaves  into  Spanish  America.  As  this  wicked  commerce  was  ex 
pected  to  be  exceedingly  profitable,  the  English  queen  secured  a 
fourth  of  the  stock  of  the  slave-trading  company. 


THE  TUSCARORAS.     SLAVE   LAWS. 

Almost  a  year  before  the  close  of  the  war  with  Canada, 
the  inhabitants  of  North  Carolina  became  involved  in  a  war 
with  the  Tuscarora  Indians.  This  tribe  had  felt  aggrieved  at 
the  occupation  of  their  land  bordering  the  Neuse  river,  by  a 
body  of  German  immigrants,  and,  more  recently  by  the  tres 
pass  of  some  Swiss  settlers.  These  established  themselves  at 
a  place  which  they  called  New  Berne,  near  where  the  Neuse 
expands  into  a  broad  estuary  before  its  waters  flow  into  Pamlico 
sound. 

Upon  the  commencement  of  hostilities  by  the  Indians, 
Governor  CRAVEN  of  South  Carolina  sent  a  few  of  the  colonial 


THE    TUSCARORAS.  239 

militia,  with  a  large  body  of  Catawbas,  Yamassees  and  other 
native  bands,  against  the  Tuscaroras,  whom  they  obliged  to 
agree  to  a  peace.  But  some  of  the  allies,  as  they  retired 
southward,  fell  upon  several  of  the  Tuscarora  villages  and 
carried  off  the  inhabitants  to  be  sold  as  slaves.  Thereupon 
the  war  was  renewed.  About  the  same  time,  the  yellow  fever 
appeared,  and  many  of  the  settlers  fled  in  terror  to  Virginia. 
The  Friends,  who,  as  we  have  seen,  were  numerous  in  North 
Carolina,  having  refused  to  bear  arms,  the  militia  with  their 
native  auxiliaries  again  came  up  from  the  southern  province, 
while  Governor  SPOTTSWOOD  of  Virginia,  also  sent  a  few 
troops  to  aid  in  the  kidnapping  work.  The  fort  of  the  Tus 
caroras  was  besieged  and  taken,  and  the  prisoners — eight  hun 
dred  in  number — were  given  up  to  the  Indian  allies,  to  be 
taken  to  South  Carolina  and  sold  into  slavery.  The  remainder 
of  the  Tuscaroras  forsook  their  country  the  following  year 
(1713)  and  passing  northward  into  the  land  of  the  Iroquois, 
were  adopted  by  that  confederacy,  which  became  generally 
known  thereafter  as  the  Six  Nations. 

Yet  hardly  two  years  elapsed  before  unscrupulous  traders  of 
Carolina  brought  on  a  war  with  their  late  auxiliaries — the 
Yamassees,  Catawbas,  Creeks  and  Cherokees.  The  planters, 
on  all  sides,  were  driven  back  from  the  frontiers  into  Charles 
ton,  and,  in  their  turn,  were  now  obliged  to  crave  help  from 
the  neighboring  provinces.  Governor  HUNTER  of  New  York 
despatched  military  supplies,  and  Spottswood  of  Virginia  sent 
a  shipload  of  volunteers  and  tributary  Indians.  With  these, 
his  own  militia,  and  certain  of  the  slaves  whom  he  armed, 
Craven  drove  the  Yamassees  into  Florida,  while  the  other 
tribes  consented  to  make  peace.  But  the  straightforwa-rd 
policy  of  Archdale,  had  it  been  continued,  would  have  saved 
the  million  dollars  of  damages  and  debt  which  this  shameful 
war  entailed.  It  would  appear  as  though,  in  proportion  as  a 
nation  is  conscious  of  a  departure  from  rectitude  in  its  deal- 


240  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1712 

ings  with  another  power,  it  seeks  to  hide  its  unfairness  or 
duplicity  by  an  appeal  to  force. 

The  first  complete  slave  law  for  South  Carolina  was  enacted 
in  1712,  there  being  at  that  time  about  6000  whites  and  10,000 
negroes  in  the  province.  It  set  forth  that  as  the  plantations 
and  estates  of  the  province  could  not  be  properly  managed 
and  tilled  without  the  labor  of  negroes  and  other  slaves,  and 
as  these  latter  were  a  wild  and  barbarous  people,  not  qualified 
to  be  governed  by  the  same  laws  and  practices  as  the  whites, 
therefore,  in  order  for  the  good  regulation  of  the  province 
and  the  security  of  its  inhabitants,  it  was  enacted  that  all 
negroes,  Indians  and  mulattoes,  who  could  not  prove  that 
they  were  freemen,  be  made  and  declared  slaves. 

It  was  also  ordered  by  this  code  that  any  person  finding  a 
slave  abroad  without  a  pass,  must  chastise  him,  or  else  be 
liable  to  a  penalty  for  the  omission.  All  crimes  committed 
by  a  slave,  from  thievery  to  murder,  were  punishable  by 
death,  but  a  lesser  punishment  could  be  substituted.  If  the 
owner  of  a  runaway  slave  neglected  to  whip,  cut  off  the  ear, 
or  brand  the  culprit  with  a  hot  iron,  then  the  owner  was  to 
forfeit  his  claim  to  the  slave.  The  leader  of  a  company  which 
captured  a  runaway,  received  several  pounds  compensation ; 
and  if  any  person  whilst  engaged  in  such  service  should  be 
wounded  or  disabled,  the  public  had  to  pay  the  damages.  If 
a  slave  was  to  die  while  being  punished,  no  penalty  was  to  be 
inflicted,  unless  bloody-mindedness  could  be  proved;  then 
the  murderer  incurred  a  forfeit  of  fifty  pounds. 


CHAPTER     XIX. 

GEORGE   I.      A   PERIOD   OF   FINANCIERING. 
1714—1727. 


PIRACY  SUPPRESSED.    THE   MISSISSIPPI   BUBBLE. 

WITH  the  death  of  Queen  Anne  in  1714,  the  rule  of  the 
house  of  Stuart  in  England  came  to  an  end.  During  most 
of  the  following  thirteen  years  which  comprised  the  reign  of 
George  the  First,  the  late  Elector  of  Hanover,  there  was 
comparative  tranquillity  in  the  colonies,  although  for  a  few 
years  after  the  declaration  of  peace,  the  Carolina  coasts  and 
the  West  Indian  seas  were  much  infested  by  pirates,  whose 
depredations  became  very  annoying. 

A  notorious  freebooter  known  as  "  Blackbeard,"  who  had 
been  accustomed  to  lurk  about  the  inlets  of  the  Pamlico,  was 
captured,  after  a  desperate  resistance  to  the  two  ships  which 
were  sent  in  pursuit  of  him  by  Spottswood.  Another,  named 
Bellamy,  suffered  shipwreck  on  Cape  Cod,  and  miserably  per 
ished  with  a  hundred  of  his  men.  Even  in  Charleston,  pub 
lic  opinion  was  turned  against  the  pirates ;  and,  it  becoming 
known  there  that  a  party  of  these  outlaws  led  by  one  Steed 
Bonnet,  had  sought  refuge  upon  the  Cape  Fear  coast,  an  ex 
pedition  which  resulted  successfully  was  sent  against  them. 
Bonnet  and  forty  of  his  accomplices  were  tried,  found  guilty 
and  executed. 

When  Alexander  the  Great  put  to  a  pirate  the  question  :  "  By 
what  right  do  you  infest  the  seas  ?"  the  pirate  answered,  "  By  the 

L  21  241 


2 42  HISTORY  OF  7WE    UNITED  STATES.  [1717 

same  right  that  you  infest  the  universe.  But  because  I  do  it  in  a 
small  ship,  I  am  called  a  robber ;  and,  because  you  do  the  same 
acts  with  a  great  fleet,  you  are  called  a  conqueror  !"  Possibly  the 
offence  of  Bonnet  and  Blackbeard  was  really  no  greater  in  the  Di 
vine  sight  than  was  that  of  the  kidnapper  Hawkins,  yet  the  former 
were  hung,  while  the  latter  was  honored  with  knighthood  ! 

The  recent  wars  in  Europe  and  America  having  left  the 
participants  greatly  involved  in  debt,  there  now  arose  various 
paper-money  projects  intended  to  remedy  the  lack  of  real 
money,  but,  being  founded  on  no  solid  basis  of  values,  great 
financial  distress  was  caused  when  the  airy  bubbles  burst. 
Foremost  of  these  schemes  was  that  originated  by  JOHN  LAW, 
a  Scotch  financier,  who  established  a  bank  in  France,  empow 
ered  to  issue  paper  currency ;  and  inasmuch  as  it  became  a 
depository  of  the  public  funds,  its  shares  rose  rapidly  in  esti 
mated  value. 

Connected  with  this  Royal  Bank  was  the  MISSISSIPPI  COM 
PANY,  or  Company  of  the  Indies.  The  speculators  who  con 
trolled  this  corporation  had,  in  1717,  obtained  the  commercial 
patent  for  Louisiana,  which  for  the  five  previous  years  had 
been  held  by  Crozat,  a  wealthy  French  merchant.  Under 
his  auspices  Fort  Rosalie,  on  the  site  of  Natchez,  had  been 
built;  and  also  a  trading-house  established  on  the  Alabama, 
near  where  Montgomery  now  stands.  But  Crozat's  expecta 
tions  of  great  riches  to  be  obtained  from  the  opening  of  mines, 
from  importing  negroes  into  Louisiana,  and  from  a  trade  with 
Mexico,  had  failed  of  fulfilment. 

It  was  the  aim  of  the  Mississippi  Company — to  which  was 
given  in  addition  the  control  of  the  Canadian  fur-trade — to 
colonize  Louisiana  at  once  with  several  thousand  whites  and 
negroes;  and,  having  ready  command  of  the  funds  of  the 
bank,  it  seemed  at  first  as  though  the  venture  was  destined  to 
succeed.  Law,  on  his  own  account,  sent  out  a  large  colony 
of  Germans,  to  improve  a  grant  of  land  upon  the  Aikansas 


1720]  J3AATXS  AND  BILLS   OF  CREDIT.  243 

river.  But  BIENVILLE,  the  surviving  brother  of  D'Iberville, 
having,  in  1718,  cleared  away  the  canebrakes  that  covered  the 
swamp-site  of  the  future  city  of  NEW  ORLEANS,  it  was  not 
long  before  the  colony  on  the  Arkansas  forsook  that  distant 
locality,  and  settled  a  few  miles  above  the  city  of  promise. 
Here,  too,  Bienville  established  the  seat  of  government. 

But  in  1720,  while  as  yet  New  Orleans  could  boast  of  but  a 
few  insignificant  sheds  and  huts,  the  Royal  Bank  failed,  the 
great  "  Mississippi  Bubble"  burst,  and  the  alluring  scheme  of 
colonization  and  empire  suddenly  collapsed.  Nevertheless, 
the  population  of  Louisiana  had  increased  in  five  years  from 
a  few  hundred  to  several  thousand.  Although  the  general 
unhealthiness  of  the  climate,  and  the  annual  overflows  of  the 
lower  Mississippi,  unconfined  as  yet  by  artificial  dykes,  were 
serious  obstacles  to  the  growth  of  the  colony,  yet  by  the  labor 
of  negroes  imported  from  Africa,  the  land  was  presently  made 
to  produce  plentiful  crops  of  rice,  tobacco  and  indigo,  and 
afterward  its  great  staple,  sugar.  The  government  was  admin 
istered,  on  behalf  of  the  company,  by  a  commandant,  assisted 
by  the  company's  colonial  directors  and  other  officers,  who 
composed  a  superior  council. 

BANKS   AND   BILLS    OF   CREDIT. 

The  people  of  the  colonies  being  constantly  in  debt  to  the 
merchants  of  the  mother  country,  money  for  remittances 
had  been  always  in  demand.  Especially  was  this  want  expe 
rienced  since  the  late  wars,  and  as  a  necessary  consequence 
of  the  drain,  the  specie  gradually  disappeared,  and  the  whole 
country  found  itself  nearly  bereft  of  a  coin  currency.  The 
time  had  not  yet  come  when  America,  in  lieu  of  sending 
away  its  specie,  could  export  grain,  sugar  and  cotton  to  pay 
its  debts.  At  the  same  time,  the  cupidity  of  the  English 
traders  interposed  every  possible  obstacle  to  the  colonists 


244  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES. 

producing  their  own  manufactured  goods  or  controlling  their 
own  commerce. 

As  an  expedient  to  promote  trade  and  to  provide  the  means 
for  paying  the  expenses  of  its  Indian  wars,  South  Carolina 
had  resorted  to  the  plan  of  issuing  bills  of  credit,  and  next 
(1712),  of  creating  a  bank,  the  stock  of  which  should  be 
loaned  out  to  individuals  and  repaid  with  interest  in  annual 
instalments.  But  in  a  few  years  this  paper  issue  so  depreci 
ated  that  it  circulated  at  but  a  small  fraction  of  its  nominal 
value ;  and  hence,  in  order  to  provide  for  the  redemption  of 
the  outstanding  bills,  a  tax  of  ten  per  cent,  was  levied  on  all 
imported  British  goods. 

The  English  merchants  complained  of  this  act,  and  the 
proprietaries  were  threatened  with  the  loss  of  their  charter. 
So  much  trouble  thereupon  ensued,  that  Francis  Nicholson, 
the  same  who  had  already  been  governor  of  several  of  the 
colonies,  was  sent  to  South  Carolina  in  1721,  to  endeavor  to 
allay  the  popular  ferment.  But  between  the  traders  of  Charles 
ton  and  the  planters,  there  continued  to  be  for  several  years 
a  good  deal  of  animosity ;  the  planters  urging  the  assembly 
to  authorize  the  issue  of  paper  money,  while  the  merchants 
as  strenuously  opposed  its  circulation.  A  law  was  passed, 
when  paper  bills  were  disallowed,  making  rice  a  legal  tender 
in  payment  of  debts. 

In  the  northern  colonies,  the  two  wars  with  the  French, 
beside  the  loss  of  life  and  property  which  they  entailed,  had 
caused  a  corresponding  financial  distress,  to  relieve  which, 
bills  of  credit  were  issued  as  in  Carolina.  In  1714,  a  public 
paper-money  bank,  though  at  first  much  opposed,  was  organ 
ized  in  Boston.  The  plan  was  also  adopted  of  making  certain 
farm  products  receivable  at  a  fixed  rate  for  taxes.  In  Rhode 
Island,  v/here  a  bank  was  established,  borrowers  were  per 
mitted  to  pay  their  interest  in  hemp  or  flax,  the  production 
of  which  staple  that  colony  used  great  efforts  to  encourage. 


17^22]  WAR    WITH   THE   NORRIDGEWOCKS.  245 

In  New  York,  the  issue  of  paper  money  by  the  assembly  of 
Governor  Hunter,  was  accomplished  without  much  trouble, 
although  the  bills  very  soon  declined  to  a  third  of  their  os 
tensible  value.  This  money  was  used  to  pay  for  old  debts 
and  services,  to  reward  the  Indian  allies  and  to  erect  fortifica 
tions.  The  like  experiment  was  tried  in  Pennsylvania  in 
1722,  under  SIR  WILLIAM  KEITH,  who  had  been  appointed  to 
the  governorship  by  Hannah  Penn,  widow  of  the  late  pro 
prietary.  The  paper  money  was  loaned  out  in  sums  of  pfio 
to  ;£ioo;  was  secured  upon  real  estate  or  silver  plate;  and 
drew  interest  at  the  rate  of  five  per  cent.  Sub-banks  or  loan 
offices  were  established  in  every  county.  Indeed,  in  every 
colony  except  Virginia,  the  issue  of  this  provincial  paper 
money  was  imitated  ;  but  as  New  England  and  the  Carolinas 
were  not  so  careful  to  restrain  the  issue  as  were  the  Middle 
provinces,  the  depreciation  was  correspondingly  greater  in 
those  parts. 

The  general  results  of  this  enlargement  of  the  currency 
appeared  at  first  to  be  beneficial.  But,  naturally,  it  was  found 
that  the  paper  issue  as  it  depreciated,  drove  the  remaining 
specie  out  of  the  country,  and  of  course  debarred  the  entrance 
of  any  more  of  the  same  ;  that  it  stimulated  the  laxity  of 
methods  of  credit,  in  preference  to  a  healthy  cash  system  ; 
that  it  was  a  detriment  to  trade  and  commerce,  because  of 
the  unsettlement  of  merchandise  values;  and  that,  in  place 
of  affording  a  real  remedy  for  the  scarcity  of  money,  it  but 
generated  a  wish  to  have  the  use  of  more.  Its  action  was 
rather  that  of  a  stimulant  to  transiently  excite,  than  of  a 
nourisher  to  build  up  strongly. 

WAR  WITH   THE   NORRIDGEWOCKS   AND   OTHER   TRIBES. 

While  the  colonies  were  thus  experiencing  the  bad  results 
of  a  depreciated  currency,  difficulties  again  arose  with  the 

21* 


246  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1724 

Abenakis  on  the  Acadian  frontier.  The  French,  in  conformity 
with  the  late  treaty,  had  removed  from  the  peninsula  of  Nova 
Scotia,  and,  upon  the  island  of  Cape  Breton,  near  its  eastern 
extremity,  had  begun  the  erection  of  a  strong  fortress  called 
Louisburg.  Upon  the  Kennebec  and  Penobscot,  French 
priests  still  maintained  an  influence  over  the  native  tribes, 
and  were  accused  of  keeping  them  hostile  toward  the  Eng 
lish.  But  the  colonists  of  Massachusetts,  jealous  of  French 
influence,  continued  to  encroach  to  the  eastward,  and  as  they 
took  no  pains  to  conciliate  the  aborigines,  the  latter  soon 
retaliated  upon  their  aggressors. 

Early  in  1722,  an  expedition  which  was  sent  against  the 
Norridgewocks  of  the  Kennebec,  pillaged  the  Catholic  mis 
sion-house  and  the  house  of  Rasles,  the  aged  priest  and  mis 
sionary.  The  tribe  retaliated  by  burning  the  village  of  Bruns 
wick.  -  Far  to  the  eastward,  some  warriors  of  another  tribe, 
seized,  in  the  strait  of  Canso,  a  large  number  of  fishing-ves 
sels  which  belonged  to  Massachusetts.  The  war  shortly  ex 
tended  all  along  the  northern  frontier  as  far  as  the  Connecti 
cut  river,  and,  as  it  proved  to  be  expensive,  as  well  as  annoying, 
large  issues  of  paper  money  became  necessary  in  order  to 
carry  it  on. 

Massachusetts  applied  to  Connecticut  for  aid,  but  at  first 
that  colony,  which  exhibited  scruples  as  to  the  justice  of 'the 
war,  begged  its  neighbors  to  have  a  care  how  they  shed  inno 
cent  blood.  But  the  voice  of  reason  and  justice  was  soon  set 
aside  and  the  aid  granted.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Mohawks 
firmly  refused  to  be  drawn  into  the  strife,  the  savages  re 
proving  the  whites  by  telling  them  to  restore  the  Indian  lands 
and  prisoners  if  they  truly  wanted  peace.  A  second  expedi 
tion  being  sent  against  the  Norridgewocks  (1724),  the  French 
priest  and  thirty  of  his  Indian  disciples  were  slain,  the  chapel 
burned  and  the  village  destroyed.  To  protect  the  settlements 
in  the  upper  Connecticut  valley,  a  fort  was  erected  the  same 


1726]  WAR    WITH   THE   NORRIDGEWOCKS.  247 

year  on  the  site  of  the  present  town  of  Brattleborough.  It 
was  the  first  English  settlement  within  the  territory  of  the 
future  state  of  VERMONT. 

There  being  a  high  premium  paid  for  Indian  scalps,  a  blood 
thirsty  fighter  of  the  border  led  a  party  who  surprised  a  group 
of  ten  Indians  sleeping  around  a  fire,  and  having  murdered 
them  all,  returned  in  triumph  to  Dover,  bearing  the  scalps 
elevated  on  poles.  A  few  weeks  later,  this  leader  and  nine  of 
his  men,  met  at  the  hands  of  the  Indians  with  the  same  awful 
fate  which  they  had  inflicted  on  their  antagonists.  Massa 
chusetts  appealed  to  the  king  to  compel  the  other  colonists 
and  the  Mohawks  to  join  in  the  war ;  but  in  the  meantime  a 
peace  was  arranged  with  the  Indians,  after  the  bitter  contest 
had  continued  for  three  years. 

The  colonists  by  this  time  began  to  perceive  their  error, 
and  that  it  was  themselves  who  were  really  to  blame  for  all 
this  unnecessary  bloodshed.  Hence,  in  order  to  protect  the 
Indians  against  the  extortions  of  private  traders,  they  estab 
lished  public  trading-houses  where  the  natives  could  receive 
goods  in  exchange  for  their  peltry,  at  something  like  a  fair 
value.  Thus  peace  was  secured  for  many  years,  and  the 
settlements  of  New  Hampshire  and  Maine,  which  had  been 
effectually  hindered  in  growth  by  the  war,  now  extended 
wirhout  interruption.  In  1726,  one  year  after  the  war,  Pena- 
cook  or  CONCORD,  the  capital  of  New  Hampshire,  was  laid 
out  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Merrimac  river. 

The  trading-post  of  Oswego,  the  first  English  settlement 
upon  the  Great  Lakes,  was  established  by  BURNET,  who  had 
succeeded  Hunter  as  governor  of  New  York.  Burnet  courted 
the  alliance  of  the  Five  Nations,  and  obtained  from  them 
(1726)  a  broad  tract  of  territory  bounding  on  Lakes  Ontario 
and  Erie,  and  extending  from  Oswego  to  Cuyahoga  or  Cleve 
land.  The  English  likewise  claimed  all  the  Canadian  country 
which  the  Iroquois  had  conquered  from  the  Hurons,  on  the 


248  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1726 

plea  that  the  Iroquois  were  their  allies,  and  were  subject  to 
the  eminent  domain  of  the  sovereigns  of  England.  But  be 
tween  them  and  the  tract  they  coveted,  was  the  French  fort 
at  Niagara,  commanding  the  water-way  to  the  upper  lakes  and 
the  Mississippi ;  all  of  which  country  the  French  claimed  by 
right  of  early  discovery  and  of  occupation. 


CHAPTER    XX. 

GEORGE   II.  :   FIRST   PERIOD. 
1727—1744. 


THE   FRENCH   WAR  WITH   THE  NATCHEZ   AND   CHICKASAWS. 

THE  city  of  Natchez  upon  the  Mississippi,  marks  the  site, 
and  will  perpetuate  the  name,  of  a  now  extinct  race  of  Sun- 
worshippers,  in  whose  lowly  temples,  dedicated  to  the  great 
luminary,  an  undying  fire  was  once  kept  burning.  As  stated 
in  the  preceding  chapter,  the  French  had  planted  in  that 
country  the  settlement  of  Fort  Rosalie.  The  commandant 
of  this  post,  with  the  recklessness  of  insatiable  avarice,  de 
manded  of  the  Natchez  tribe,  for  his  plantation,  the  very 
tract  on  which  stood  the  huts  of  their  principal  village.  It 
was  a  pretty  little  settlement  called  "  the  White  Apple." 

Incensed  at  such  a  proposition,  the  Natchez  listened  to  the 
counsel  of  the  Chickasaws,  their  neighbors  to  the  northward, 
and,  having  planned  a  sudden  attack  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
year  1729,  a  general  massacre  of  the  French  settlers  at  the 
fort  ensued.  AH  of  the  men,  to  the  number  of  several  hun 
dred  were  murdered,  and  the  women  and  children  made  pris 
oners.  We  may  well  describe  such  a  deed  as  a  "savage 
blow;"  and  yet,  how  would  nations  called  civilized — how 
would  the  French  themselves — have  treated  so  unjust  a  de 
mand  as  that  of  giving  into  the  hands  of  strangers  their 
beloved  homes,  their  chief  city?  Had  they  so  learnt  the 
pure  law  of  the  Gospel  that  they  would  have  resigned  all, 
L*  249 


250  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1736 

rather  than  have  slain  their  enemies  had  they  been  in  their 
power  ? 

But  the  French  did  not  tarry  long  ere  they  executed  their 
revenge.  On  the  east  of  the  Mississippi,  between  the  chief 
colony  of  the  French  at  New  Orleans  and  the  little  nation 
of  Sun-worshippers,  was  the  numerous  tribe  of  the  Choctaws. 
Having  made  these  their  auxiliaries,  the  French  invaded  the 
Natchez  country,  put  to  death  or  captured  many  of  the  natives, 
and  drove  the  remnant  across  the  river,  or  forced  them  to  seek 
safety  with  the  Creeks  and  Chickasaws.  The  four  hundred 
prisoners  whom  they  had  taken,  were  sent  to  Hispaniola  to  be 
sold  into  slavery.  But  the  cost  to  the  Company  of  the  Indies, 
of  defending  this  wilderness  possession,  greatly  exceeding  the 
profits  which  they  realized,  the  grant  was  resigned  in  1732  to 
the  crown  of  France. 

Because  of  the  counsel,  hostile  to  the  French,  which  the 
Chickasaws  had  extended  to  the  Natchez,  and  because  the 
former  tribe  was  now  threatening  to  sever  the  connection 
between  Louisiana  and  the  Great  Lakes,  by  attacking  the 
boats  which  passed  up  and  down  the  Mississippi,  the  French 
authorities  determined  to  make  an  end  of  them  even  as  they 
had  of  the  Natchez.  If  an  additional  incentive  was  wanting, 
to  confirm  the  French  in  their  purpose,  it  was  afforded  by  the 
knowledge  of  the  fact  that  English  traders  from  Carolina  had 
visited  the  Chickasaw  villages,  and  busily  inflamed  the  minds 
of  the  natives  against  them.  So  important  was  the  success  of 
the  enterprise  deemed  to  be,  that  many  months  were  devoted 
to  preparations  for  the  expedition,  which  did  not  start  until 
the  spring  of  1736. 

The  French  force  under  Bienville  proceeded  in  boats  to 
Mobile,  and  ascended  the  Tombigbee  to  its  upper  waters; 
being  accompanied  by  about  1200  of  the  Choctaws,  who  were 
eager  to  gain  the  high  reward  offered  by  the  French  for  the 
scalps  of  their  enemies.  But  when  they  arrived  at  the  in- 


1739]      THE  ASSIENTO  AND  AFRICAN  TRADERS.        251 

frenchmen ts  of  the  Chickasaws,  they  found  the  warriors  on 
the  watch,  and  English  flags  displayed  above  the  rude  walls 
of  the  fort.  The  attacks  of  Bienville  were  so  strongly  resisted 
that  he  was  obliged  to  order  a  retreat  down  the  Tombigbee. 
In  the  meantime  a  similar  force  of  French  and  Indians  from 
the  Illinois  country,  entered  the  Chickasaw  territory  on  the 
north,  expecting  to  form  a  junction  with  Bienville's  band. 
Failing  in  this,  they  too  made  an  assault  and  were  driven 
back  with  much  loss.  The  wretched  prisoners  having  been 
bound,  were  burnt  at  the  stake.  One  of  the  principal  of  these 
unfortunates  was  a  Canadian,  DE  VINCENNES,  whose  name 
was  given  to  the  city  on  the  Wabash,  the  oldest  settlement  in 
Indiana. 

In  the  year  following,  another  attempt  was  made  to  sub 
due  the  refractory  tribe,  the  French  on  the  Mississippi  re 
ceiving  aid  from  Canada.  On  the  prominent  bluff  where 
Memphis  was  subsequently  built,  a  fort  had  been  constructed  ; 
and  here  the  whites,  red  men  and  negroes,  to  the  number  of 
about  3500,  established  their  quarters  and  passed  an  unhealthy 
winter.  In  the  spring  (i  739),  the  Chickasaws  being  willing  to 
agree  to  a  peace,  the  French  gladly  destroyed  their  fort  on 
the  bluff  and  went  back 'to  their  settlements. 

THE   ASSIENTO   AND   THE  AFRICAN   TRADERS. 

Under  the  treaty  of  Utrecht,  the  English  South  Sea  Com 
pany  was  granted  the  exclusive  privilege  of  introducing  negro 
slaves  into  the  Spanish  West  Indian  dominion.  For  this 
wicked  favor  of  becoming  the  chief  slave-dealers  of  the  na 
tions,  it  was  stipulated  that  the  company  should  pay  to  the 
king  of  Spain  a  duty  of  $33^3  a  head,  and  that  it  should 
introduce  into  the  said  colonies  within  the  space  of  thirty 
years,  144,000  negro  bondsmen.  The  South  Sea  Company, 
which  was  organized  nearly  at  the  same  time  as  were  Law's 


25 2  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1739 

Royal  Bank  and  Mississippi  Company,  and  which  resembled 
the  bank  in  its  plan  of  buying  up  the  national  debt  with  its 
stock,  was  destined,  however,  to  meet  with  a  like  disastrous 
termination. 

Notwithstanding  the  notable  failure  of  this  bubble-scheme, 
the  Assiento  contract,  above  set  forth,  survived  the  financial 
wreck,  and  fulfilled  its  unholy  office.  At  the  same  time,  the 
organized  ''African  Company,"  encouraged  and  firmly  sus 
tained  by  English  legislation,  continued  to  supply  England's 
own  colonies  with  thousands  of  the  same  oppressed  race.  It 
is  computed  that  in  the  century  between  1676  and  1776,  the 
English  nation,  by  means  of  these  two  agencies,  imported 
into  their  own  dependencies  and  into  the  Spanish  and  French 
West  Indies,  about  three  million  negroes,  most  of  them  be 
tween  the  ages  of  15  and  30  years.  Beside  these,  there  were 
probably  a  quarter  of  a  million  of  those  who  had  been  pur 
chased  on  the  African  coast  for  a  similar  purpose,  who  suc 
cumbed  to  the  horrors  of  the  "Middle  passage"  and  were 
buried  beneath  the  waters  of  the  Atlantic. 

If  we  would  bring  the  iniquity  of  this  traffic  vividly  to  view,  let 
us  read  from  the  diary  of  a  certain  surgeon  of  an  English  slave- 
ship  on  the  Guinea  coast — written  while  waiting  for  a  cargo  of  war- 
captives  : 

"  Sestro,  Dec.  29,  1724. — No  trade  to-day,  though  many  traders 
came  on  board.  They  informed  us  that  the  people  are  gone  to  war 
within-land,  and  will  bring  prisoners  enough  in  two  or  three  days,  in 
hopes  of  which  we  stay. 

"  The  3  ist. — Fair  weather,  but  no  trading  yet.  We  see  each  night 
towns  burning ;  but  we  hear  many  of  the  Sestro  men  are  killed 
by  the  inland  negroes,  so  that  we  fear  this  war  will  be  unsuccessful. 

"The  2nd  of  January. — Last  night  we  saw  a  prodigious  fire 
break  out  about  eleven  o'clock,  and  this  morning  see  the  town  of 
Sestro  burnt  down  to  the  ground.  It  contained  some  hundred 
houses  ;  so  that  we  find  their  enemies  are  too  hard  for  them  at 
present,  and  consequently  our  trade  is  spoiled  here.  Therefore, 
about  7  o'clock  we  weighed  anchor,  to  proceed  lower  down." 


1729]  GEORGIA   FOUNDED   BY  OGLE  THORPE.         253 

One  of  the  factors  of  the  African  Company,  of  England,  wrote 
thus  in  1730  :  "  When  the  king  of  Barsalli  wants  goods  and  brandy, 
he  sends  to  the  English  governor  at  James'  Fort,  who  immediately 
sends  a  sloop.  Against  the  time  the  vessel  arrives  he  plunders 
some  of  his  neighbors'  towns,  selling  the  people  for  the  goods  he 
wants.  At  other  times  he  falls  upon  one  of  his  own  towns,  and 
makes  bold  to  sell  his  own  subjects." 

The  importation  of  so  many  negroes  into  America  was 
the  occasion  of  considerable  complaint  on  the  part  of  sev 
eral  of  the  colonies,  especially  Virginia.  But  the  British 
government,  upheld  by  its  merchants  and  traders,  was  stren 
uous  in  maintaining  the  commerce,  which  it  characterized  as 
a  "trade  highly  beneficial  and  advantageous  to  the  kingdom 
and  its  colonies."  The  selfishness  and  folly  of  its  motives 
are  apparent  in  the  declaration  which  was  used,  that  "negro 
labor  will  keep  our  British  colonies  in  a  due  subserviency 
to  the  interests  of  their  mother-country ;  for,  while  our  plan 
tations  depend  only  on  planting  by  negroes,  our  colonies  can 
never  prove  injurious  to  British  manufactures — never  become 
independent  of  their  kingdom." 

GEORGIA  FOUNDED  BY  OGLETHORPE. 

In  1729,  the  charter  of  Carolina  was  sold  by  the  eight  pro 
prietaries  to  the  British  crown.  The  first  royal  governor  of 
South  Carolina,  ROBERT  JOHNSON,  undertook  to  encourage 
settlements  by  free  gifts  of  land,  to  be  laid  out  on  the  princi 
pal  rivers :  Purysburg,  upon  the  Savannah,  founded  by  Swiss 
emigrants,  being  the  first  place  settled  in  accordance  with  this 
scheme.  Meanwhile  the  Spaniards  of  Florida,  although  claim 
ing  part  of  Carolina  itself,  had  but  the  one  chief  settlement 
of  St.  Augustine  in  the  east,  together  with  Pensacola  in  the 
west,  and  the  fort  of  St.  Mark's  on  Appalachee  bay,  midway 
between.  But  the  territory  lying  south  of  the  Savannah,  the 

22 


254  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1732 

English  laid  claim  to  as  part  also  of  Carolina;  wherefore  in 
1732,  to  the  intent  that  it  might  serve  as  a  barrier  against 
future  Spanish  invasion,  they  authorized  its  settlement.  To 
twenty-one  trustees  was  granted  the  country  lying  between 
the  Savannah  and  Altamaha  rivers,  and  extending  from  the 
headwaters  of  those  streams  westward  to  the  Pacific  :  to  be 
called  the  province  of  GEORGIA,  and  to  be  held  in  trust  for 
the  poor. 

The  person  who  was  chiefly  instrumental  in  obtaining  the 
grant  was  JAMES  OGLETHORPE,  a  member  of  the  British  parlia 
ment.  His  attention  had  been  especially  directed  to  the  sub 
jects  of  prison  discipline  and  of  imprisonment  for  debt,  and, 
as  a  commissioner  for  inquiring  into  the  condition  of  English 
prisons,  he  had  been  the  means  of  releasing  a  large  number 
of-  helpless  debtors  who  for  years  had  been  kept  in  confine 
ment,  with  no  prospect  of  paying  off  the  scores  against  them. 
To  provide  homes  and  the  chance  of  re-commencing  life,  for 
these;  to  secure  a  "  place  of  refuge  for  the  distressed  people 
of  Britain  and  the  persecuted  Protestants  of  Europe,"  Ogle- 
thorpe  and  his  associates  in  the  enterprise  petitioned  the  king 
for  the  above  tract. 

The  charter  of  Georgia  granted  the  free  exercise  of  religion 
to  all  people  within  its  borders,  papists  only  excepted.  It 
declared  that  every  one  born  in  the  province  should  be  as 
free  in  every  respect  and  enjoy  the  same  rights  and  immuni 
ties  as  if  born  upon  the  soil  of  Britain.  But  all  the  powers 
of  government  were  conferred  upon  a  council,  part  of  them 
named  in  the  charter,  and  the  rest  to  be  chosen  by  the  trus 
tees,  to  whom  was  also  given  the  privilege  of  filling  all  vacan 
cies  as  they  occurred.  Hence  the  form  of  government  was 
not  really  a  representative  one  of  the  people.  Begun  as  a 
scheme  of  benevolence,  it  was  thought  best  that  the  control 
should  at  first  be  in  the  hands  of  trustees,  with  executive 
powers  similar  to  those  of  the  managers  of  any  charitable 


1733]         GEORGIA   FOUNDED    BY  OGLETHORPE.  255 

organization.  To  prevent  the  wholesale  absorption  of  lands  by 
a  few  people,  as  had  been  the  case  in  Carolina  and  Virginia, 
it  was  provided  that  no  one  person  should  be  permitted  to  re 
ceive  a  larger  tract  than  500  acres.  The  culture  of  silk,  it  was 
anticipated,  would  be  the  chief  industry  of  the  new  colony. 

Early  in  1733,  Oglethorpe  and  about  130  emigrants  of  the 
needy  class,  sailed  up  the  Savannah  river  (called  also  the 
Isun'diga)  and  upon  the  sandy  bluff  of  Yamacraw,  twenty 
miles  from  the  sea,  made  choice  of  the  site  of  Georgia's  future 
metropolis — the  city  of  SAVANNAH.  A  treaty  of  amity  was 
entered  into  with  the  Creeks,  and  friendly  relations  established 
with  the  other  neighboring  tribes.  The  territory  between  the 
two  rivers  (the  Savannah  and  Altamaha)  as  far  up  as  the  flow 
of  tide-water,  was  readily  granted  by  the  natives. 

In  the  second  year  there  came,  besides  a  number  of  Jews, 
a  body  of  persecuted  Lutherans  from  the  principality  of  Salz 
burg  in  Germany.  Singing  psalms  upon  the  way,  the  pious 
exiles  had  come  down  the  Rhine  to  Rotterdam  ;  at  Dover  were 
kindly  received  by  some  of  the  trustees  of  the  Georgia  colony; 
and  having  crossed  the  ocean  to  Charleston,  were  welcomed 
there  by  Oglethorpe,  who  led  them  to  the  locality,  not  far 
above  Savannah,  which  he  had  set  apart  for  their  settlement. 
They  called  the  place  Ebenezer ;  and  being  joined  by  others 
of  the  Salzburgers,  they  soon  established  a  happy  and  pros 
perous  community.  Nearly  at  the  same  time,  Augusta,  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  the  river,  was  established  as  a  trading- 
post  ;  the  traffic  with  the  Indians  soon  being  greater  in  Georgia 
than  in  any  other  of  the  southern  provinces.  Highlanders 
also  came  and  settled  on  the  Altamaha. 

On  the  Ogeechee  river,  south  of  Savannah,  a:  few  Moravians 
under  SPANGENBURG,  sent  over  by  Count  Zinzendorf,  a  noted 
leader  of  that  sect,  located  themselves,  with  the  intention  of 
carrying  on  missionary  work  among  the  Indians.  The  brothers 
JOHN  and  CHARLES  WESLEY,  afterward  so  well  known  as  the 


256  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1733 

founders  of  Methodism,  came  to  Savannah  ;  Charles  as  secre 
tary  to  Oglethorpe,  and  his  brother  with  the  purpose  of  be 
coming  an  Indian  missionary  :  but  they  did  not  remain  long 
in  the  colony.  Upon  their  return  to  England,  GEORGE 
WHITEFIELD,  the  celebrated  preacher,  came  over  in  1738,  and 
having  interested  himself  in  founding  an  orphan  asylum  near 
Savannah,  made  an  extensive  tour  through  the  colonies, 
preaching  and  collecting  funds  for  the  asylum's  support. 
This  was  the  time  in  the  religious  history  of  our  country 
which  was  characterized  by  intense  religious  excitement  and 
enthusiasm,  and  is  spoken  of  as  the  "Great  Awakening." 

RUM   AND   SLAVERY.     THE  SPANIARDS   AND   INDIANS. 

The  introduction  into  Carolina  of  the  rum  of  Barbadoes 
had  proved  such  a  serious  evil  to  that  colony  that  the  trus 
tees  determined  to  prohibit  its  use  in  Georgia;  and  the  bet 
ter  to  exclude  it,  all  trade  with  the  West  Indies  was  positively 
forbidden.  This  course  was  much  resented  by  the  debtor- 
settlers,  who  should  naturally  have  been  the  most  grateful  for 
the  kindness  of  which  they  had  been  the  recipients.  They 
declared  that  rum  was  essential  in  such  a  climate  as  is  that 
of  lower  Georgia,  with  its  low  sandy  plains,  and  swamps  that 
breed  the  miasma.  But  the  Salzburgers  and  Highlanders, 
men  better  accustomed  to  patient  labor,  were  a  more  temper 
ate  class,  who  believed  the  disease  was  best  fought  by  removing 
its  causes ;  that  the  latter  could  be  better  effected  by  draining 
their  land  and  keeping  it  well  cultivated,  than  by  the  use  of 
ardent  spirits. 

Among  the  minutes  of  the  board  of  trustees  occurs  the  following 
entry  :  "  Read  a  letter  from  Mr.  Oglethorpe  with  an  account  of  the 
death  of  several  persons  in  Georgia,  which  he  imputed  to  the  drink 
ing  of  rum.  Resolved,  that  the  drinking  of  rum  in  Georgia  be  ab 
solutely  prohibited,  and  that  all  which  shall  be  brought  there  shall 
be  staved." 


1739]  RUM  AND   SLAVERY.  257 

John  Wesley  wrote,  many  years  afterward,  alluding  probably  to 
this  period  of  his  life  :  "  I  was  fully  convinced  above  40  years  ago 
that  all  distilled  liquors  are  liquid  fire,  and  consequently,  slow 
poison.  It  is  from  this  consideration  that  we  do  not  admit  in  our 
society  either  distillers  or  retailers  of  spirituous  liquors." 

The  trustees  also  prohibited  slavery  in  the  colony  ;  but  the 
class  who  were  clamorous  for  rum  were  also  the  most  eager  to 
be  maintained  by  the  labor  of  the  negro.  The  words  of  Ogle- 
thorpe  relative  to  the  practice,  are  worthy  of  retention  in  our 
country's  history  :  "  Slavery,"  he  says,  "  is  against  the  gospel, 
as  well  as  the  fundamental  law  of  England.  We  refused,  as 
trustees,  to  make  a  law  permitting  such  a  horrid  crime."  The 
Salzburgers  of  Ebenezer,  contented  in  their  homes  of  peace, 
and  busy  in  the  work  of  producing  raw  silk  and  indigo,  ear 
nestly  protested  against  the  introduction  of  slaves.  White- 
field  and  the  Wesleys,  who  had  witnessed  the  results  of  slavery 
in  the  Carolinas,  were  also  much  concerned  lest  Georgia  should 
fall  under  its  withering  blight.  All  three  were  moved  to  write 
earnest  addresses  on  the  subject,  to  the  American  planters. 
But  with  the  system  in  active  operation  in  Carolina  and 
Florida,  Georgia  was  not  able  long  to  withstand  the  contami 
nating  influence. 

Ambitious  to  establish  the  boundary-mark  of  the  English 
dominion  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  Oglethorpe  located  the  forti 
fied  post  of  Frederica  on  St.  Simon's  island  below  the  mouth 
of  the  Altamaha;  and,  still  further  south,  two  other  forts  on 
the  islands  at  the  mouths  of  the  St.  Mary's  and  the  St.  John's. 
New  treaties  were  entered  into  with  the  Indians,  who  declared 
themselves  ready  to  aid  the  English  against  either  the  Span 
iards  or  French.  Opportunity  was  not  long  delayed,  for,  in 
1739,  England  declared  war  against  Spain,  on  the  ground 
that  the  latter  country  had  refused  to  agree  to  the  commercial 
requirements  of  England,  and  had  exercised  severe  measures 
upon  captured  English  smugglers.  But  the  fleet  of  Admiral 

22* 


258  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1740 

Vernon  which  was  expected  to  effect  the  conquest  of  the 
Spanish  West  Indies,  was  baffled  in  its  object ;  while  Ogle- 
thorpe,  though  aided  by  South  Carolina  troops,  failed  to 
effect  the  capture  of  St.  Augustine. 

Charleston,  by  an  accidental  fire,  was  laid  in  ashes  (1740), 
and  the  settlers  at  that  time  were  also  in  much  dread  of  a 
revolution  of  the  slaves. 

The  Spaniards  having  collected  a  considerable  force,  their 
fleet  of  over  thirty  vessels  sailed  from  Cuba  for  the  Georgia 
coast.  After  an  unsuccessful  attempt  to  capture  Fort  William 
at  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Mary's,  they  proceeded  against  Fred- 
erica  on  the  island  of  St.  Simon  ;  but  the  troops  having  de 
barked,  were  attacked  as  they  were  crossing  a  marsh,  by  the 
army  of  Oglethorpe,  and  obliged  to  retreat  to  their  ships. 
The  squadron  made  another  fruitless  assault  upon  Fort  Wil 
liam,  and  then  returned  to  Cuba.  Oglethorpe  the  following 
year  went  back  to  England.  Although  of  a  benevolent  dis 
position,  the  founder  of  Georgia  had,  from  boyhood,  been 
attached  to  military  pursuits,  and  as  a  consequence  of  this 
training  he  "was  ever  ready,"  says  Bancroft,  "  to  shed  blood, 
rather  than  brook  an  insult." 

It  is  instructive  to  consult  the  testimony  of  history  as  to  the  cause 
of  this  British-Spanish  war,  of  which  only  a  fragment  is  here  related. 
We  will  find  that  in  this  instance  the  two  governments  really  desired 
peace;  that  they  had  each  appointed  commissioners  to  determine 
the  boundary  between  Carolina  and  Florida,  as  well  as  to  arrange 
the  other  matters  in  dispute.  But  the  English  people  refused  to 
abide  by  the  proposed  arrangement,  declaring  that  it  would  unfavor 
ably  affect  their  interests.  They  appear  to  have  believed  that  they 
could  easily  overcome  their  rich  but  less  hardy  enemies  ;  and  hence, 
owing  to  the  belligerent  clamors  of  the  traders  and  the  excited  popu 
lace,  the  negotiations  were  broken  off  and  the  government  forced 
into  a  war. 

The  sturdy  and  industrious  Highlanders  and  others,  who 
had  proved  such  a  valuable  acquisition  to  the  colony,  had  been 


1 741]  THE  BRITISH-SPANISH  WAR.  259 

withdrawn  from  their  useful  occupations  and  obliged  to  serve 
as  soldiers.  More  than  this,  the  Moravians,  who  had  come 
to  Georgia  to  make  Christians  of  the  Indians,  and  not  to 
teach  them  the  art  of  war,  finding  that  their  work  was  quite 
broken  up,  determined  to  leave  the  colony.  "  In  order  to 
avoid  taking  up  arms,  which,  at  that  time,"  says  De  Schweinitz, 
"  was  contrary  to  the  principles  of  the  Church,  they  relin 
quished  all  their  improvements  and  emigrated  to  Pennsyl 
vania,  arriving  at  Philadelphia  April  20,  1740,  in  company 
of  George  Whitefield,  and  in  his  sloop."  They  settled  at 
the  Forks  of  the  Delaware  on  land  belonging  to  Whitefield ; 
but  a  year  later  purchased  an  adjacent  tract  on  the  Lehigh, 
where  a  mission  settlement  arose,  which  by  Count  Zinzendorf 
was  called  Bethlehem. 

To  aid  Admiral  Vernon,  the  northern  colonies  had  also 
been  called  on  to  furnish  their  quotas  of  troops  and  supplies. 
Spottswood,  late  the  governor  of  Virginia,  had  died  of  yellow 
fever  at  the  disastrous  siege  of  Carthagena  (1741),  where  he 
had  been  second  in  command.  In  Pennsylvania,  the  assembly 
being  still  mostly  Friends,  were,  as  before,  scrupulous  about 
voting  money  for  the  furtherance  of  war;  but  as  the  governor 
and  most  of  the  inhabitants  were  of  another  way  of  thinking, 
there  ensued  a  warm  controversy  upon  the  subject  of  the 
militia  and  measures  of  defence.  Massachusetts,  under  Gov 
ernor  WILLIAM  SHIRLEY,  ordered  the  issue  of  more  provincial 
paper  money,  and  furnished  the  troops  called  for.  Of  4000 
men  who  went  from  the  colonies  to  the  war,  it  is  stated  that 
not  a  tenth  part  ever  returned. 

It  was  at  this  time  (1741)  that  New  Hampshire,  which  had 
had  the  same  governors  as  Massachusetts,  was  permitted  one 
of  its  own.  BENNING  WENTWORTH,  who  first  held  the  posi 
tion,  continued  to  serve  for  a  period  of  twenty  years.  The 
town  of  Bennington,  then  settled,  received  its  name  from  this 
efficient  officer. 


260  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES,  [1718 


THE  WALKING   PURCHASE.     BRAINERD. 

The  Indian  Walk,  or  Walking  Purchase,  appears  as  a  promi 
nent  incident  in  the  colonial  history  of  Pennsylvania.  It 
strongly  marks  the  departure  from  that  plain  path  of  right- 
dealing,  which  the  benevolent  Penn  had  hoped  would  ever 
subsist  between  his  successors  in  the  proprietary  trust  and  the 
original  occupants  of  the  soil.  At  the  Great  Treaty,  Penn 
had  declared  to  them  in  good  faith  that  they  "were  met  on 
the  broad  pathway  of  peace  and  good-will,  so  that  no  advan 
tage  was  to  be  taken  on  either  side,  but  all  was  to  be  openness, 
brotherhood  and  love."  But  unhappily,  as  it  proved,  for  the 
peace  and  prosperity  of  the  commonwealth,  the  descendants 
of  Penn  (who  differed  in  religious  faith  from  their  ancestor,) 
were  also  at  times,  in  their  colonial  dealings,  inclined  to  a 
different  practice.  Their  interest  in  the  colony  was  not,  like 
his,  so  entirely  unselfish  in  its  character,  and  hence  they  had 
not  the  same  regard  for  the  establishment  therein  of  pure  and 
noble  principles  of  life  and  government. 

In  making  land  purchases  of  the  Indians,  it  had  been  the 
practice  of  Penn  and  his  agents  to  define  the  boundaries  by 
streams  and  highlands,  so  far  as  their  knowledge  of  the  coun 
try  extended ;  but,  respecting  the  unknown  interior,  such 
vague  terms  were  used  as  "two  days  journey  with  a  horse" 
or  "as  far  as  a  man  can  go  in  two  days,"  etc.  Penn's  own 
policy  was  one  so  grounded  in  uprightness  and  love,  that  he 
preferred  paying  for  land  several  times  over,  and  to  as  many 
different  claimants,  rather  than,  through  lack  of  an  indis 
putably  clear  title,  to  expose  the  settlers  upon  his  lands  to  the 
chance  of  a  miserable  death  by  the  scalping-knife  and  toma 
hawk. 

A  deed  made  in  1718,  by  a  number  of  chiefs  of  the  Dela- 
wares,  had  confirmed  to  the  proprietaries  the  title  to  all  the 
territory  between  the  Susquehanna  and  Delaware  rivers,  as  far 


1733]  THE    WALKING  PURCHASE.  261 

northward  as  the  Lehigh  hills.  But  as  the  land  beyond  the 
latter  boundary  began  to  be  taken  up  by  settlers,  the  Indians 
made  complaint  of  these  encroachments,  and  accordingly 
THOMAS  PENN,  who  was  then  in  the  province,  paid  for  a  part 
— the  Tulpehocken  lands  on  the  Schuylkill — but  refused  to 
make  compensation  for  the  territory  at  the  Forks  of  the  Dela 
ware.  The  "  Forks"  included  not  only  the  site  of  the  present 
city  of  Easton,  but  the  whole  region  comprised  between  the 
Lehigh  and  Delaware,  and  bounded  on  the  north  by  the  Blue 
Mountains.  It  was  agreed  finally  that  the  dispute  should  be 
decided  according  to  the  wording  of  the  oldest  deed  to  Penn, 
to  wit :  one  and  a  half  days'  journey  northward  from  the 
Neshamony  creek  towards  the  mountains,  and  from  that  point 
a  straight  line  to  be  drawn  eastward  to  the  Delaware. 

The  proprietors  immediately  advertised  in  the  public  papers 
for  the  most  expert  walkers  in  the  province,  offering  a  reward 
of  several  pounds  in  money,  besides  a  tract  of  500  acres  of 
land,  to  the  one  who  should  walk  the  farthest  in  the  given 
time.  Of  the  applicants,  three  were  carefully  chosen,  the 
Indians  bringing  forward  a  like  number  of  their  own  nation 
to  accompany  them.  Upon  a  selected  day  in  the  latter  part 
of  1737,  when  the  time  from  sunrise  to  sunset  was  the  longest, 
the  pedestrians  started  from  the  Neshaminy  (twenty  miles 
north  of  Philadelphia),  on  their  momentous  journey.  By  the 
time  they  had  crossed  the  Lehigh  hills  and  the  river  of  that 
name,  two  Indians  and  one  of  the  whites  had  given  out.  At 
sundown  an  Indian  village  was  reached,  and  a  halt  made 
until  morning.  When  the  north  side  of  the  Blue  Ridge  was 
gained,  the  forenoon  following,  many  Indians  were  there  col 
lected  expecting  the  walk  to  terminate,  but  upon  finding  it  was 
to  be  continued  still  farther,  they  became  very  angry.  The 
walking  was  proceeded  with  and  finished,  all  having  given 
out  but  one,  a  white  man.  The  Six  Nations,  the  masters  of 
the  Delawares,  confirmed  the  land  to  the  English. 


262 


HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES. 


[1733 


By  this  piece  of  over-reaching  it  was,  that  Penn's  successors 
extinguished  the  Indian  title  to  the  rich  lands  of  the  Minisinks 
beyond  the  Delaware  Water  Gap.  But  the  land  speculators 
had  a  special  reason  for  desiring  the  Minisink  territory  to  be 
included  in  the  walk,  which  was,  that  thousands  of  those  acres 
had  been  previously  surveyed  and  sold.  Also,  about  the  time 
of  the  walk,  the  proprietary  had  issued  proposals  for  a  lottery 
of  100,000  acres  of  land;  it  having  been  stipulated  that  pur 
chasers  of  tickets  should  take  up  any  unoccupied  tracts.  In 
this  manner  many  tracts  at  the  Forks  were  now  settled  upon. 
The  Walking  Purchase  became  the  cause  of  jealousies  and 
heart-burnings  among  the  Indians,  eventually  breaking  out 
into  loud  complaints  of  injustice,  followed  by  savage  acts  of 
vengeance,  as  will  appear  farther  on  in  our  history. 


Area .north of 'XI 
%udulcntly  ac, 
about  500,000  acjf-es 


Three   years  subsequent  to  the  Walking  Purchase  (1740), 
came  the  Moravian  colony  from  Georgia,  and  settled  at  the 


1744]  BRAINERD.  263 

Forks  of  the  Delaware.  A  little  later  (1742),  CHRISTIAN 
RAUCH  and  other  Moravians  began  to  labor  among  the  Mohe- 
gan  tribe  in  Eastern  New  York  and  also  just  within  the  borders 
of  Connecticut ;  but  the  assembly  of  New  York,  instigated  by 
the  land-speculators  and  liquor-traders,  forbade  the  mission 
aries  to  preach.  Accompanied  by  some  Indian  converts  they 
therefore  moved  down  to  their  settlement  of  Bethlehem,  on 
the  Lehigh. 

Simultaneously,  JOHN  SERGEANT,  a  tutor  of  Yale  College, 
originated  a  mission  among  the  Housatonic  Indians  at  Stock- 
bridge  in  western  Massachusetts,  not  far  from  Rauch's  little 
settlements.  Sergeant  labored  with  much  zeal  and  success  for 
fifteen  years,  when  he  died.  The  noted  JONATHAN  EDWARDS 
became  his  successor.  The  Stockbridge  colony,  when  Ser 
geant  was  stricken  down,  had  increased  from  fifty  natives  to 
four  times  that  number,  and  possessed  neat  dwellings,  culti 
vated  farms,  a  house  of  worship  and  several  schools. 

A  young  man  of  strong  intellect,  of  excellent  memory,  search 
ing  and  convincing  in  his  discourse,  was  DAVID  BRAINERD,  a 
pupil  of  Jonathan  Edwards,  who  came  in  1744  from  Connec 
ticut  to  labor  among  the  tribes  of  the  Delawares  at  the  Forks 
and  in  central  and  western  New  Jersey.  Living  in  their 
wigwams,  eating  their  coarse  fare,  regardless  of  creature 
comforts  so  that  he  might  have  many  hours  of  quiet  for  med 
itation  and  prayer,  he  travelled — mostly  at  his  own  charges — • 
hundreds  of  miles  through  the  wooded  wilderness  and  swamps, 
and  over  toilsome  steeps,  exhibiting  in  his  beautiful  Christian 
life  a  worthy  example  of  purity  and  self-denial. 

The  scene  of  Brainerd's  greatest  success  was  in  New  Jersey. 
The  principal  village  of  the  Christian  Indians  was  called  by 
the  name  of  Bethel,  and  it  was  said  of  its  people  that  their 
consistent  lives  "  put  to  shame  their  white  brethren  in  other 
churches."  But  the  young  missionary  sustained  for  three 
years  only  this  arduous  life  in  the  wilderness;  for,  having 


264  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1744 

embarked  upon  a  journey  to  the  upper  Susquehanna  (whither 
he  had  been  several  times  before),  his  feeble  frame  gave  way 
under  the  fatigue  and  exposure,  and  death  ensued  before  he 
had  reached  his  thirtieth  year.  A  younger  brother,  JOHN 
BKAINERD,  entered  the  same  field  of  useful  work.  Although 
much  favored  by  Belcher,  the  governor  of  New  Jersey,  yet 
many  of  the  Indian  titles  for  lands  being  disputed,  fell  into 
the  hands  of  chief-justice  Morris,  an  irreligious  man,  and  the 
Indians  of  Bethel  were  eventually  ejected  from  their  posses 
sions. 

One  who  came  to  assist  the  younger  Brainerd,  says  :  "  It  is  sur 
prising  to  see  the  people  who,  not  long  since,  were  led  captive  by 
Satan  at  his  will,  and  living  in  the  practice  of  all  manner  of  abomi 
nations,  without  the  least  sense  even  of  moral  honesty,  yet  now 
living  soberly  and  regularly,  and  not  seeking  every  man  his  own, 
but  every  man,  in  some  sense,  his  neighbor's  good  ;  and  to  see  those 
who  but  a  little  while  past,  knew  nothing  of  the  true  God,  now 
worshipping  him  in  a  solemn  and  devout  manner,  not  only  in 
public,  but  in  their  families  and  in  secret ;  which  is  manifestly  the 
case,  it  being  a  difficult  thing  to  walk  into  the  woods  in  the  morning 
without  disturbing  persons  in  secret  devotions.  It  seems  wonderful 
that  this  should  be  the  case  not  only  with  adult  persons,  but  with 
children  also  ;  for  it  is  observable  here,  that  many  children  retire 
into  secret  places  to  pray." 


CHAPTER    XXI. 

GEORGE   II.    SECOND   PERIOD. 

1744—1760. 


THIRD  WAR  WITH  CANADA.     LOUISBURG  CAPTURED. 

THE  wars  that  at  intervals  broke  out  between  the  rival 
monarchs  of  Europe,  were  always  accompanied,  as  we  have 
seen,  by  a  counterpart  conflict  in  the  American  colonies. 
When  Charles  VI.,  Emperor  of  Germany,  died  in  1740,  the 
claim  of  his  daughter  Maria  Theresa  to  the  throne,  was  dis 
puted  by  the  Elector  of  Bavaria.  England,  thereupon, 
espoused  the*  cause  of  the  former,  while  France,  Spain  and 
Prussia  took  the  part  of  the  Bavarian,  and  for  seven  years 
were  fought  upon  the  plains  of  western  Europe  the  battles  for 
the  Austrian  succession.  Meanwhile  the  angry  billows  of 
strife  had  broken  upon  the  American  shores,  where  the  English 
colonies,  under  the  leadership  of  Massachusetts,  prepared  once 
more  to  attack  Canada. 

It  was  considered,  in  the  first  place,  of  vital  importance  to 
firmly  secure  the  friendship  of  the  Six  Nations  ;  and  accord 
ingly,  Governor  CLINTON  of  New  York,  together  with  com 
missioners  from  New  England,  met  the  chiefs  and  envoys  of 
the  tribes  at  Albany,  in  1743,  and  gained  them  over  by  liberal 
presents.  And  at  another  important  council  held  at  Lancaster 
a  year  later,  it  was  agreed,  upon  the  part  of  Pennsylvania, 
Maryland  and  Virginia,  that  the  claim  of  the  Six  Nations  to 
the  country  between  the  Blue  Ridge  and  the  Ohio,  which  they 
M  23  265 


266  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1745 

had  conquered  from  the  Shawnees,  should  now  be  admitted. 
For  the  sum  of  ^400  all  the  beautiful  valley  of  the  Shenan- 
doah  and  the  mountain-country  of  Virginia  back  to  the  Ohio 
were  given  up  to  the  English. 

But  the  vanquished  Shawnees  who  had  been  thus  deprived 
of  their  hunting-grounds,  and  the  Delawares  who  had  lost 
largely  of  their  land  by  the  Indian  Walk,  both  favored  the 
cause  of  the  French. 

The  latter  nation  began  hostilities  by  the  capture  of  the 
little  fort,  and  the  destruction  of  the  fishery,  at  Canso,  on  the 
north-eastern  extremity  of  the  Nova  Scotian  peninsula;  and, 
as  privateers,  issuing  from  Louisburg  on  the  opposite  isle  of 
Cape  Breton,  threatened  to  injure  the  New  England  commerce 
and  to  annihilate  its  fisheries,  it  was  determined  to  attempt 
the  conquest  of  that  formidable  fortress.  The  colonies  as  far 
south  as  Pennsylvania  having  been  solicited  for  aid,  4000 
troops,  mostly  furnished  by  Massachusetts,  were  placed  under 
the  command  of  William  Pepperell,  and,  embarking  for 
Canso,  were  shortly  joined  by  several  ships  from  England 
under  Commodore  Warren.  The  siege  of  Louisburg,  after  it 
had  continued  over  two  months,  was  terminated  in  the  sixth 
month  (June)  1745,  by  the  surrender  of  its  French  garrison, 
together  with  the  defenders  from  the  town,  numbering  in  all 
nearly  2000  men.  Although  the  loss  of  the  English  in  the 
siege  had  been  but  about  150,  yet  of  those  who  were  now  unwil 
lingly  detained  to  garrison  the  place,  ten  times  that  number 
perished  by  disease,  many  of  them  being  Indians  who  had  been 
persuaded  to  enlist  as  soldiers  in  the  provincial  regiments. 

While  the  colonies,  in  the  expectation  of  another  fleet  from 
England,  were  raising  additional  troops  to  follow  up  their  re 
cent  success  by  the  hoped-for  conquest  of  Canada,  great  con 
sternation  was  caused  by  the  news  of  the  sailing  of  a  French 
squadron  of  forty  ships  of  war  for  the  American  coast.  The 
hostile  fleet,  however,  was  shattered  by  storms  and  shipwreck, 


1747]  THIRD    WAR    WITH  CANADA.  267 

and  the  troops  were  wasted  by  a  pestilent  disease ;  the  admi 
ral  died,  and  his  successor,  in  a  delirium,  committed  suicide. 
The  ships  returned  singly  to  France,  but  having  subsequently 
made  a  second  attempt  (1747)  to  reach  Canada,  they  were 
captured  by  the  English  fleet  of  Admiral  Anson. 

In  the  meantime  the  Canadian  Indians,  allies  of  the  French, 
were  active  in  harassing  the  northern  frontier.  At  Crown 
Point,  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Champlain,  a  fort  had 
been  constructed  by  the  French,  and  from  there  a  small  force 
was  sent,  which  surprised  and  ravaged  the  English  settle 
ment  at  Saratoga.  The  official  agent  of  the  English  among 
the  Six  Nations  at  this  period,  was  a  man  of  Scotch-Irish 
birth,  named  WILLIAM  JOHNSON.  He  had  established  him 
self  on  the  Mohawk  river,  thirty  miles  west  of  Albany,  where 
he  diligently  cultivated  the  good-will  of  the  natives,  took  a 
wife  from  amongst  them,  and  carried  on  a  lucrative  traffic, 
supplying  them  with  rum,  fire-arms  and  scalping-knives,  or 
whatever  else  their  savage  need  craved.  Johnson's  influence 
over  the  Mohawk  tribe  was  greater  than  that  of  any  of  their 
native  chiefs,  and,  in  the  war  with  the  French,  he  led  a  party 
of  the  tribe  who  were  designed  to  act  as  forest-skirmishers  in 
advance  of  the  main  army. 

In  Pennsylvania,  the  desire  of  the  Friends,  the  Mennonites 
and  others,  for  peace,  was  at  last  overruled  by  the  governor 
and  a  majority  of  the  people  of  the  province, — the  wishes 
of  the  latter  being  greatly  aided  by  BENJAMIN  FRANKLIN. 
The  philosopher  at  that  time  was  a  man  above  forty  years  of 
age,  and  by  his  printed  productions,  his  great  abilities  and 
natural  force  of  character,  began  to  exercise  much  weight  in 
political  affairs.  There  being  a  rumor  that  French  privateers 
were  about  to  attempt  the  capture  of  Philadelphia,  a  large 
militia  force  was  organized,  and  money  was  raised  by  lotteries 
to  erect  batteries  for  the  defence  of  the  Delaware.  And  thus 
terminated  (1747)  the  happy  period  of  uninterrupted  peace 


268  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1748 

and  of  freedom  from   invasion,  which  had  existed   for  the 
period  of  65  years  since  the  foundation  of  the  province. 

The  SCHWENCKFELDERS,  a  body  of  Germans,  who,  on  account 
of  the  religious  toleration  and  immunity  from  military  service 
which  they  were  told  prevailed  in  Pennsylvania,  had  come  hither 
in  1733  and  '34,  were  likewise  opposed  to  the  war.  The  founder 
of  the  sect,  Caspar  von  Schwenckfeld,  a  Silesian  knight,  was  a  con 
temporary  of  Luther.  For  two  hundred  years  his  followers  re 
mained  in  Silesia,  but,  having  been  subjected  to  much  persecution 
by  the  Jesuits,  they  removed  to  Saxony,  where  they  found  a  friend 
in  Count  Zinzendorf,  the  Moravian.  Eight  years  later,  however, 
receiving  a  peremptory  notification  to  depart,  they  embarked  for  this 
country.  A  few  years  subsequently,  Frederick,  of  Prussia,  amazed 
at  the  short-sightedness  which  had  driven  away  such  an  honest  and 
industrious  community,  issued  an  edict,  offering  to  reimburse  them 
for  all  their  losses,  and  to  give  them  new  farms  and  building-lots 
free  of  cost,  but  not  one  of  the  Schwenckfelders  accepted  the  prof 
fered  aid  and  protection. 

With  the  peace  of  AIX-LA-CHAPELLE  in  1748,  the  war  in 
Europe  and  America  (and  in  India,  to  which  it  had  likewise 
extended),  was  brought  to  a  close.  Cape  Breton  and  Louis- 
burg  were  returned  to  the  French,  and  the  St.  Mary's  river 
was  made  the  boundary  between  Georgia  and  Spanish  Florida; 
but  the  right  of  the  Spaniards  to  search  English  vessels  sus 
pected  of  smuggling,  which  had  been  a  principal  pretext  for 
the  war  with  Spain,  was  not  even  alluded  to  in  the  treaty. 


THE   SOUTHERN    PROVINCES.     SLAVES   AND    REDEMPTIONERS. 
THE   MOLASSES  ACT. 

BALTIMORE,  the  present  metropolis  of  Maryland,  was  laid 
out  in  1729,  but  for  thirty  years  or  more,  it  remained  a  mere 
village  :  Annapolis,  the  seat  of  government,  being  the  more 
important  place.  THOMAS  BLADEN,  who  had  married  a  sister 
of  Lord  Baltimore,  was  governor  under  the  proprietor  at  the 


1746]  THE   SOUTHERN  PROVINCES.  269 

time  of  the  war  with  Canada  ;  but  being  a  man  of  an  irascible 
temperament,  which  caused  him  easily  to  fall  into  disputes 
with  the  assembly,  he  was  displaced  (1747)  by  BENJAMIN  OGLE, 
a  former  occupant  of  the  governor's  office. 

Under  the  proprietor  Frederick,  the  sixth  and  last  Lord 
Baltimore,  the  Catholics,  having  for  many  years  experienced 
the  social  annoyances  and  disadvantages  imposed  upon  them 
in  the  province  which  themselves  had  settled,  applied  to  the 
court  of  France  for  a  grant  of  lands  in  Louisiana;  but  no 
practical  step  followed  the  application.  About  the  same  time 
(1751)  the  Nanticoke  tribe  of  Indians,  left  their  ancient  homes 
on  the  Eastern  Shore  of  Maryland,  and  carrying  with  them 
the  bones  of  their  forefathers,  found  a  temporary  resting- 
place  and  hunting-grounds  about  the  upper  waters  of  the 
Susquehanna. 

In  North  Carolina,  the  collection  of  the  quit-rents — the 
sole  source  from  which  was  derived  the  pay  of  the  gov 
ernor  and  other  royal  officers — continued  to  occasion  a 
great  deal  of  contention,  precisely  as  it  had  done  in  South 
Carolina,  in  Pennsylvania  and  in  New  Jersey.  Finally,  when 
their  salaries  had  become  several  years  in  arrears,  the  royal 
officers  removed  the  seat  of  government  (1746)  from  the 
Albemarle  plantations  down  to  the  new  settlement  of  Wil 
mington,  on  the  Cape  Fear  river.  The  southern  counties 
were  more  favorable  to  the  governor ;  and  the  English  authori 
ties  having  approved  of  the  change,  the  collection  of  the  quit- 
rents  and  the  payment  of  arrearages  of  salary  were  then  carried 
into  effect. 

The  institution  of  slavery,  although  it  existed,  to  a  greater 
or  less  degree  in  all  the  colonies,  did  not  make  the  same  prog 
ress  in  the  northern  that  it  did  in  the  southern  provinces, 
where  the  soil,  climate  and  plantation  system,  all  favored  the 
employment  of  the  African.  Nevertheless  the  slaves  were, 
as  a  general  thing,  treated  with  more  kindness  and  care  in 


270  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1750 

New  England  than  they  were  in  the  South,  as  being  considered 
more  in  the  light  of.  apprentices.  In  1750,  there  were  about 
1000  slaves  in  Boston ;  while  in  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  which 
was  then  the  principal  shipping-port  of  New  England,  the 
ratio  to  the  white  population  was  even  greater  than  in  the 
former  city.  Newport  rum  was  exchanged  on  the  African 
coast  for  negroes  to  be  sold  to  the  southern  colonies;  and 
ships  from  Boston  and  New  York  embarked  in  the  same  un 
righteous  traffic. 

A  Congregationalist  pastor  of  Newport,  DR.  SAML.  HOPKINS, 
having  frequently  witnessed,  close  to  his  house,  the  landing  of 
cargoes  of  negro  slaves,  boldly  rebuked  his  congregation  for 
the  sin  in  which  they  were  so  deeply  engaged.  In  1770,  and 
for  six  years  thereafter,  he  continued  to  visit  the  masters  from 
house  to  house,  urging  them  to  give  liberty  to  their  bondsmen. 
So  greatly  blessed  were  his  labors,  that  the  church  of  which 
he  was  a  member,  decided  before  the  end  of  the  century, 
that  the  holding  of  slaves  would  not  be  tolerated  amongst 
them. 

In  Pennsylvania,  the  custom  of  slave-holding  found  many 
opponents  among  the  Friends  ;  and  it  is  noteworthy  that  the 
first  protest  of  a  religious  body  against  negro  slavery  was 
one  drawn  up  in  1688  by  FRANCIS  DANIEL  PASTORIUS,  a  Ger 
man  Friend  of  Germantown.  The  protest  was  adopted  by 
the  members  there,  and  forwarded  to  the  "  Yearly  Meeting" 
at  Philadelphia.  The  eccentric  BENJAMIN  LAY,  who  had  wit 
nessed  the  horrors  of  slavery  in  the  Barbadoes,  was  zealously 
opposed  to  the  system.  The  labors  of  JOHN  WOOLMAN  and 
ANTHONY  BENEZET,  were  of  marked  effect  upon  the  whole 
body  of  Friends,  who,  when  persuaded  that  the  practice  was 
morally  unlawful, rested  not  until  the  evil  was  eradicated  from 
the  borders  of  their  religious  society.  Benjamin  Franklin  was, 
from  an  early  period  in  his  public  career,  a  decided  advocate, 
with  Friends,  of  emancipation. 


J 750]  SLAVES  AND  REDEMPTIONERS.  271 

At  the  Yearly  Meeting  of  Friends  of  Philadelphia  and  vicinity, 
held  in  1758,  so  impressive  and  convincing  were  the  remarks  made 
by  Woolman  upon  the  practice  of  slave-holding,  that  it  was  agreed 
to  appoint  a  committee  to  visit,  and  to  entreat  with,  such  of  the 
members  within  the  limits  of  the  meeting  as  kept  slaves.  Their 
labors  were  attended  with  excellent  results, — many  who  held 
slaves  being  willing  to  set  them  at  liberty.  In  1774,  the  Yearly 
Meeting  issued  its  testimony  against  the  practice,  and  in  I77^>  the 
subordinate  meetings  were  directed  to  deny  the  rig/it  of  membership 
to  such  as  persisted  in  holding  their  fellow-men  as  property :  a  worthy 
Declaration  indeed  for  that  year  of  Independence  !  Furthermore, 
conceiving  that  some  reparation  was  due  to  those  who  had  been 
held  in  bondage,  many  of  the  former  owners  of  such,  agreed  to  pay 
them  for  past  services  according  to  an  award  to  be  made  by  arbi 
trators.  Meanwhile  Woolman,  following  the  call  of  duty,  had 
visited  New  England,  and  at  the  Yearly  Meeting  for  that  section, 
held  at  Newport  (1760),  finding  that  several  Friends  were  concerned 
in  the  slave  trade,  he  proclaimed  with  kindly  and  yet  most  earnest 
utterances,  the  sin  fulness  of  the  practice.  The  same  result  ensued 
as  at  Philadelphia,  for  (says  Whittier)  "wherever  he  went  hard 
hearts  were  softened,  avarice  and  love  of  power  and  pride  of  opinion 
gave  way  before  his  testimony  of  love."  Such  are  the  true  con 
quests  of  Christianity  !  In  the  space  of  twenty  years  there  were 
no  slaves  known  to  be  held  by  members  of  New  England  Yearly 
Meeting.  These  also  made  restitution  for  former  services.  The 
like  course  was  adopted  in  New  York  ;  and  finally,  in  Virginia, 
where  slavery  had  its  strongest  hold  in  the  Society,  the  evil  was 
peacefully  abolished. 

In  the  middle  colonies,  from  New  York  to  Virginia,  the 
importation  of  indentured  white  servants  was  extensively 
carried  on.  These  servants  were  also  known  as  "  Redemp- 
tioners,"  and  their  term  of  service  was  limited  bylaw,  seldom 
or  never  exceeding  seven  years.  In  Virginia,  upon  the  expi 
ration  of  his  term,  the  redemptioner  was  entitled  to  a  grant  of 
fifty  acres  of  land,  the  same  as  any  other  immigrant.  But  the 
condition  of  poverty,  and  especially  of  ignorance,  in  which 
they  were  kept,  as  a  class,  tended  to  retain  them  even  when 
freed,  in  a  reduced  and  subject  state.  The  name  "soul- 


272  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1750 

drivers"  was  given  to  a  certain  set  of  men,  who  made  it  a 
business  to  purchase  the  redemptioners  in  lots  from  captains 
of  ships,  and  to  drive  them  about  the  country  like  cattle,  dis 
posing  of  them  to  the  farmers,  with  whom  they  worked  out 
the  term  of  service  necessary  to  pay  for  their  passage-money. 
It  has  been  mentioned  above  that  New  England  rum,  espe 
cially  that  of  Newport,  was  a  medium  largely  employed  to 
obtain  slaves,  with  which  to  stock  the  southern  plantations. 
This  rum  was  produced  by  the  distillation  of  molasses,  mostly 
obtained  from  the  French  West  India  islands,  and  on  which 
the  New  England  traders  paid  no  duty.  In  order  to  stop  this 
traffic,  and  to  compel  the  colonies  to  get  their  supply  of  sugar, 
molasses  and  rum,  from  the  British  West  Indies,  the  English 
parliament  passed  a  law  known  as  the  Molasses  Act,  by  which 
a  heavy  duty  was  imposed  upon  all  importations  of  those  pro 
ducts  from  the  French  or  Dutch  islands.  Nevertheless,  this 
act  was  constantly  evaded,  not  only  by  smugglers,  but  by  the 
whole  mercantile  body  of  the  colonies. 

Perhaps  it  may  seem  to  some,  upon  a  casual  view  of  the  case,  not 
to  have  been  very  wrong  for  the  merchants  to  get  their  sugar  and 
syrup  where  they  chose.  So  far,  indeed,  they  were  perfectly  right. 
But  when  the  government,  for  purposes  of  its  own — utterly  selfish 
withal  as  those  purposes  were — saw  proper  to  impose  a  tax  on  the 
commodities  in  question,  then  it  became  the  duty  of  the  citizen  to 
pay  the  same,  even  though  by  so  doing  he  realized  no  profit  from 
their  sale.  The  case  is  altered,  however,  when  the  question  of  a 
scruple  of  conscience  is  presented  ;  for  it  is  necessary  to  keep 
clearly  in  view  the  distinction  between  a  law  that  is  simply  oppres 
sive,  and  another  that  offends  the  conscience, — in  other  words,  one 
which  we  cannot  obey  without  offending  God,  and  thus  committing 
sin.  Hence  a  person  who  is  conscientiously  opposed  to  military 
service  may  properly  refuse  to  bear  arms,  because  he  will  feel  that 
if  he  takes  the  life  even  of  his  country's  enemy,  he  is  committing  a 
grievous  sin  ;  but  he  will  have  no  right,  even  though  he  honestly 
believe  that  free  trade  will  best  promote  the  prosperity  of  his 
country,  to  attempt  to  smuggle  goods  into  his  warehouse,  contrary 
to  the  law 


1753]  FOURTH  INTERCOLONIAL   WAR.  273 

FOURTH    INTERCOLONIAL   WAR.     BRADDOCK'S   DEFEAT. 

By  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  in  1748,  commissioners 
were  to  be  appointed  to  settle  the  boundary  between  the  Eng 
lish  settlements  and  those  of  Acadie.  It  was  the  wish  of  the 
French  to  restrict  the  English  to  the  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  to  the  country  west  of  the  Penobscot  river.  In  the  inter 
vening  territory  between  Nova  Scotia  and  the  Penobscot, 
several  French  military  posts  were  established.  The  English 
about  the  same  time  (1749)  began  to  construct  the  fortress  of 
HALIFAX,  as  a  check  to  Louisburg.  It  received  its  name  from 
the  Earl  of  Halifax,  first  commissioner  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
and  Plantations.  To  this  Board  the  English  government 
committed  the  superintendence  of  American  affairs ;  its  duty 
being  to  make  recommendations  to  one  of  the  two  secretaries 
of  state.  The  secretary  in  important  matters  consulted  with 
the  king  or  with  parliament. 

A  second  section  of  country,  for  the  possession  of  which 
both  the  English  and  French  began  to  manifest  a  dangerous 
rivalry,  was  that  between  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio.  As  many 
as  sixty  posts  were  at  this  time  possessed  by  the  French  along 
the  Great  Lakes  and  the  Mississippi ;  while  they  had  also  se 
cured  the  friendship  of  the  Indian  tribes  of  Canada  and  the 
West.  But  immediately  after  the  treaty,  an  English  corpora 
tion,  called  the  Ohio  Company,  composed  mostly  of  London 
ers  and  Virginians,  obtained  a  grant  of  500,000  acres  of  land 
on  and  near  the  Ohio  river,  together  with  the  exclusive  privi 
lege  of  the  Indian  traffic.  On  the  Monongahela,  much  to  the 
disquiet  of  the  French,  a  trading-post  was  established  by  the 
company.  This  was  resented  by  the  capture  of  a  number  of 
English  traders  by  the  French,  who  likewise  determined  to 
further  strengthen  their  claims  by  building  a  large  post  (1753) 
at  Presque  Isle — now  Erie — and  smaller  trading-posts  in  the 
neighboring  interior. 
M* 


274  HISTORY  OF   '1  FIE    UNITED   STATES.  [1754 

Governor  Robert  Dinwiddie,- of  Virginia,  apprised  of  these 
active  movements  of  the  French,  sent  an  envoy,  the  young 
GEORGE  WASHINGTON,  to  demand  the  release  of  the  captured 
traders,  and  to  inquire  by  what  right  the  French  were  en 
croaching  on  that  region.  Washington  was  then  but  twenty- 
one  years  of  age,  and  by  occupation  wa*s  a  land-surveyor, 
resident  in  the  county  of  Westmoreland  on  the  "  Northern 
Neck." 

While  Washington  was  absent  on  his  mission,  Dinwiddie 
ordered  a  fort  to  be  erected  at  the  point  of  land  where  the 
Alleghany  and  Monongahela  rivers  meet,  to  form  the  Ohio. 
But  the  French  interfered,  drove  off  the  construction  party, 
and  they  themselves  began  to  build  a  fort,  which,  in  honor 
of  the  governor-general  of  Canada,  was  called  FORT  Du 
QUESNE.  Washington,  upon  his  return,  was  sent  with  a  de 
tachment  to  resist  the  attempt  of  the  French,  but  was  over 
powered  by  the  latter  at  the  Great  Meadows,  and  forced  to 
capitulate.  All  this  occurred  in  the  year  1754,  and  marked 
the  beginning  of  a  final  terrible  struggle  between  the  two  powers 
for  the  control  of  the  continent :  a  struggle  in  which  Canada 
depended  largely  on  aid  from  France  and  alliance  with  the 
Indians.  The  whole  population  of  New  France,  from  Louis- 
burg  to  New  Orleans,  was  then  but  about  100,000,  while  the 
English  exceeded  twelve  times  that  number. 

About  the  middle  of  the  year,  there  was  held  at  Albany,  an 
important  council  of  commissioners  from  all  the  colonies  north 
of  the  Potomac,  to  concert  measures  of  defence,  and  to  treat 
with  the  Six  Nations  and  their  allies.  At  this  assembly  there 
was  introduced  a  plan,  chiefly  devised  by  Franklin,  for  a 
federal  union  of  the  English-American  colonies,  which  were 
to  be  represented  in  a  great. council  by  their  chosen  delegates. 
A  president-general  was  to  be  named  and  supported  by  the 
king,  and  the  capital  city  was  to  be  Philadelphia.  Yet  the 
proposition  was  not  entirely  acceptable  either  to  Great  Britain 


1755]          TnE  FRENCH  NEUTRALS   OF  ACADIE.  275 

or  America,  and  after  causing  considerable  discussion,  then 
and  subsequently,  it  was  finally  rejected. 

GENERAL  BRADDOCK  having  been  appointed  commander- 
in-chief  of  the  English  forces,  sailed  (1755)  for  America  with 
2000  regular  troops,  and  landing  at  the  little  town  of  Alex 
andria  on  the  Potomac,  proceeded  up  that  river  to  Cumberland. 
Being  joined  by  a  body  of  the  provincials,  and,  through  the 
co-operation  of  Franklin,  furnished  with  wagons  and  horses,  he 
slowly  advanced  through  the  wilderness  toward  the  mountains. 
The  opening  of  a  road  for  the  passage  of  the  artillery  and 
wagons  proved  to  be  an  exceedingly  laborious  work,  and  con 
sumed  much  time.  Impatient  at  the  delay,  the  commander 
pushed  on  in  advance  with  a  part  of  the  troops,  but  when 
within  five  miles  of  Fort  Du  Quesne,  they  fell  into  an  ambus 
cade  of  the  French  and  Indians.  Braddock  and  many  of  his 
men  were  killed,  the  military  stores  were  abandoned  to  the 
enemy,  and  the  surviving  troops  hastily  retreated, — the  rear 
being  protected  by  Washington,  who  had  accompanied  Brad- 
dock  in  the  capacity  of  aid-de-camp,  and  now  took  command 
of  the  Virginia  troops. 

THE   FRENCH    NEUTRALS   OF  ACADIE. 

The  upper  part  of  the  bay  of  Fundy  divides  into  the  two 
tributary  bays  or  basins  of  Minas  and  of  Beau-Bassin.  Around 
these  waters,  and  upon  the  fertile  banks  of  the  broad  river  of 
Annapolrs — another  estuary  of  the  bay  of  Fundy — were  clus 
tered  the  quiet  hamlets  of  the  French  settlers.  These  settlers, 
amounting  in  number  to  12,000  or  more,  were  known  by  the 
name  of  the  "French  Neutrals;"  and,  although  by  the  treaty 
of  Utrecht  forty  years  before,  Acadie  had  been  ceded  to  the 
British  and  its  name  changed  to  Nova  Scotia,  yet  were  these 
colonists  permitted,  in  accordance  with  their  choice,  to  retain 
their  homesteads,  exempt  from  fighting  the  battles  of  either 
nation. 


276  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1755 

The  peacefulness  and  serenity  which  marked  those  happy 
abodes  have  often  been  celebrated  in  song  and  story.  But, 
unhappily  for  their  continuance,  a  number  of  young  Aca- 
dians,  who  were  forced  into  the  French  service  upon  the 
breaking  out  of  the  war,  were  taken  prisoners.  They  formed 
part  of  the  garrison  of  a  fort  which  had  been  captured  by  an 
army  of  provincials  from  Massachusetts,  sent  to  break  up  the 
posts  of  the  French  in  the  debatable  territory  between  the 
Penobscot  and  Nova  Scotia. 

To  arrange  some  scheme  by  which  the  Acadian  settlers 
might  be  got  rid  of,  and  the  trouble  and  expense  of  keeping 
garrisons'  among  them  be  saved,  the  lieutenant-governor  of 
Nova  Scotia  consulted  with  Admirals  Boscawen  and  Mostyn, 
commanders  of  the  English  fleet.  Notwithstanding  it  had 
been  agreed,  at  the  capture  of  the  fort  above  spoken  of,  that 
the  neighboring  French  inhabitants  should  not  be  disturbed, 
the  result  of  the  conference  was,  the  devising  of  a  plan  for 
kidnapping  the  Acadians,  and  transporting  them  to  the  various 
British  colonies.  Upon  divers  pretexts  the  people  were  in 
one  day  assembled  together  in  their  chapels,  and  these  being 
quickly  surrounded  by  troops,  the  inmates  were  made  pris 
oners  and  hurried  on  board  the  transports.  Furthermore, 
that  there  should  be  either  a  complete  surrender  or  the  alter 
native  of  starvation,  the  growing  crops  were  destroyed,  and 
houses,  barns  and  all  their  contents  were  given  over  to  the 
flames.  This  ruthless  deed  was  consummated  in  the  harvest- 
time  of  1755. 

In  the  confusion  and  haste  of  forcible  embarkation,  many 
were  the  children  who  were  separated  from  parents — wives 
from  husbands — and  dear  friends  parted,  never  to  see  each 
other  again.  Then  in  poverty  and  utter  misery,  they  were 
landed  at  the  ports  of  all  the  British-American  colonies, 
among  strangers  and  haters  of  their  name  and  religion  ;  and, 
although  their  sorrows  sometimes  won  for  them  considerate 


1755]  THE   MARQUIS  OF  MONTCALM.  277 

attention,  yet  in  most  cases  the  colonial  assemblies  endeavored 
to  remove  them  as  quickly  as  it  could  be  effected.  A  few 
made  their  way  to  France,  and  some  to  Canada,  Louisiana, 
or  other  of  their  country's  colonies;  but  the  greater  part, 
heart-sick  or  overcome  by  dejection  and  despair,  ended  their 
days  in  exile. 

The  plea  of  expediency,  while  it  is  a  prolific  incentive  to  war 
fare,  has  also  been  used  as  the  cloak  of  many  a  dark  deed  of  cruelty. 
Such  was  Napoleon's  excuse  for  the  massacre  of  the  2000  Arabs 
of  JAFFA.  Those  unfortunates  had  surrendered  upon  the  promise 
given  them  by  two  officers  of  Napoleon's  staff  that  their  lives  would 
be  spared.  But  upon  a  council  of  war  being  held,  at  which  it  was 
stated  that  some  of  the  prisoners  were  men  who  had  violated  their 
paroles,  it  was  decided  at  length  that  as  provisions  were  scarce,  and 
as  troops  could  not  be  spared  either  to  guard  them  or  to  convey 
them  to  French  territory,  it  would  be  most  expedient  thatthey  should 
every  one  be  shot.  With  their  hands  tied  behind  their  backs,  they 
were  led  down  to  the  bottom  of  the  sand-hills  by  the  sea-shore,  and 
for  five  hours  the  soldiers  fired  a  continuous  volley  of  death  into 
the  dense  mass  of  humanity,  until  not  an  Arab  was  left  alive.  "  The 
returning  tide  washed  the  blood  of  this  murdered  host  from  the 
sands  of  Joppa,  but  no  tide  will  ever  wash  their  blood  from  those 
French  executioners  and  this  soldier-god  !" 


THE   MARQUIS   OF   MONTCALM 

Upon  the  death  of  Braddock,  Governor  SHIRLEY  of  Massa 
chusetts  became  commander-in-chief  of  the  English  forces. 
With  troops  from  New  England  and  New  York,  he  erected 
(1755)  strong  defences  at  Oswego  on  Lake  Ontario,  and,  after 
making  great  preparations,  was  about  to  embark  for  the  pur 
pose  of  attacking  -the  French  fort  at  Niagara;  but  in  conse 
quence  of  the  approach  of  winter,  the  scantiness  of  supplies, 
and  the  continued  prevalence  of  storms,  the  expedition  was 
abandoned. 

To  Johnson,  the  Indian  agent,  was  given  the  command  of 

24 


278  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1756 

an  expedition  which  was  to  attack  Crown  Point  on  Lake 
Champlain.  The  French  general,  Count  Dieskau,  had  as 
cended  the  lake  to  its  southern  extremity,  and  there  landed 
his  troops.  These  encountered  and  defeated  a  body  of  the 
English  and  their  Mohawk  allies,  near  Lake  George ;  but  in 
a  subsequent  attack  upon  Johnson's  camp,  they  were  them 
selves  overcome,  with  the  loss  of  a  thousand  men.  Dieskau 
himself  was  mortally  wounded. 

Meanwhile  the  Delawares  and  Shawnees,  in  alliance  with 
the  French,  committed  great  depredations  on  the  border  set 
tlements  of  Pennsylvania,  Maryland  and  Virginia.  Along 
the  whole  frontier,  from  the  upper  Delaware  to  the  Potomac, 
was  seen  the  blaze  of  burning  farm-houses  and  villages.  In 
Pennsylvania  loud  was  the  call  "to  arms."  Large  rewards 
being  offered  for  Indian  scalps,  many  of  the  Friends  who 
were  in  the  assembly  either  resigned  their  places  or  declined 
re-election,  as  they  could  not  unite  with  the  people  in  pro 
viding  means  to  carry  on  the  contest.  The  French  had  all 
along  expressed  a  desire  to  come  to  terms,  but  asked  as  a  con 
dition  that  the  English  should  restore  the  merchant  ships 
which  in  great  numbers  they  had  piratically  seized  in  a  time 
of  peace;  yet  this  the  latter  refused  to  do,  and  so  the  war  went 
on.  It  raged  also  in  Europe, — being  known  in  history  as  that 
"Seven  Years'  War,"  in  which  Frederick,  called  the  Great, 
was  the  ally  of  England. 

In  the  following  year  (1756)  the  EARL  OF  LOUDOUN  was 
sent  over  to  America  to  take  the  chief  command  of  the  army, 
with  authority  superior  to  the  colonial  governments,  and  with 
permission  to  keep  and  quarter  the  king's  troops  in  private 
houses,  if  need  be,  without  the  consent  of  the  assemblies. 
Thus  began  the  royal  military  rule  of  the  provinces,  which 
continued  to  prevail  for  the  succeeding  twenty  years,  until  the 
breaking  out  of  the  Revolutionary  war. 

A  large  force  was  organized  at  Albany,  but  in  the  meantime 


1757]  THE  MARQUIS   OF  MONTCALM.  279 

the  MARQUIS  OF  MONTCALM,  Dieskau's  successor,  crossed 
Lake  Ontario  with  5000  French  and  Indians,  and  captured 
the  forts  at  .Osvvego,  together  with  the  garrison  and  stores, 
and  also  the  vessels  which  had  been  built  the  year  before  for 
the  Niagara  expedition.  To  please  the  Six  Nations  and  secure 
their  neutrality,  Montcalm  destroyed  the  Oswego  forts,  to 
the  existence  of  which  in  their  territory  the  Indians  had  been 
averse  from  the  first. 

In  the  campaign  of  the  next  year  (1757),  Montcalm  was 
again  successful.  With  8000  men,  including  the  garrisons  of 
Crown  Point  and  Ticonderoga,  he  ascended  Lake  George  to 
its  southern  extremity,  and  laid  siege  to  Fort  William  Henry. 
The  garrison,  2000  in  number,  expected  aid  from  General 
Webb,  who,  with  a  much  larger  force,  was  at  Fort  Edward, 
fourteen  miles  distant.  This  aid  being  withheld,  the  garri 
son  agreed  to  surrender,  with  the  understanding  that  they 
should  be  fully  protected.  But  the  Indian  allies  of  Mont 
calm,  eager  for  plunder,  and  overcome  by  liquor  obtained 
in  the  fort,  fell  upon  the  English,  of  whom  many  were  massa 
cred,  although  the  greater  number  either  fled  back  to  the 
French,  or,  after  many  hardships  and  wanderings,  finally 
reached  Fort  Edward.  Montcalm,  ordering  Fort  William 
Henry  to  be  demolished,  embarked  his  troops  and  Indians. 
The  Canadians  returned  home  to  gather  in  their  harvests,  and 
the  beautiful  lake — called  in  the  Indian  dialect,  Horicon,  or 
Silver  Water — was  left  once  more  to  its  primeval  solitude. 

A  band  of  two  hundred  men  from  Carolina  had  penetrated 
to  the  region  of  the  upper  Tennessee  (1756)  and  built  Fort 
Loudoun.  They  now  found  the  Cherokees  wavering,  and 
divided  in  sentiment.  "Use  all  means  you  think  proper," 
wrote  Governor  Lyttleton,  of  Carolina,  "to  induce  our  In 
dians  to  take  up  the  hatchet.  Promise  a  reward  to  every  man 
who  shall  bring  in  the  scalp  of  a  Frenchman  or  one  of  the 
French  Indians." 


28o  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1750 

DAVID    ZEISBERGER,  THE   MORAVIAN. 

For  his  success  at  the  battle  of  Lake  George,  the  Indian 
agent  Johnson  received  the  honor  of  knighthood  ;  whilst 
among  the  French,  the  name  of  the  Marquis  of  Montcalm  was 
heralded  with  many  plaudits.  Nevertheless,  it  is  said  of 
men,  "Ye  shall  know  them  by  their  fruits:"  and  again,  "  A 
good  tree  cannot  bring  forth  evil  fruit."  Whether  the  work 
of  the  French  and  the  English  leaders  in  stimulating  the 
worst  passions  of  the  Indians,  was  work  for  a  Christian  to  do, 
or  for  Christian  people  to  applaud,  the  reader  can  determine 
for  himself.  He  beholds  the  evil  fruit — the  revenge  and  ra 
pine,  the  devouring  flames,  and  the  hideous  deeds  of  slaughter 
— and  may  readily  decide  whether  such  things  as  these  have 
any  part  in  the  religion  of  the  Christian,  and  whether  glory 
such  as  this  is  of  a  sort  acceptable  in  the  sight  of  God. 

Now  while  Johnson  and  Montcalm  were  thus  teaching  the 
red  men  lessons  of  life  and  death  such  as  Christ  and  his 
Apostles  never  taught,  a  greater  hero  than  English  knight  or 
French  marquis,  was  laboring  zealously,  patiently,  lovingly, 
in  the  path  of  Eliot  and  Brainerd,  striving  to  instruct  the 
Indians  in  a  far  more  excellent  way.  The  name  of  this  worthy 
was  DAVID  ZEISBERGER,  a  Moravian.  He  had  heard  of  the 
active  interest  manifested  by  Oglethorpe  in  the  Moravian 
colony  of  Georgia,  and  though  yet  a  boy,  came  over  to  the 
province  just  before  the  breaking  out  of  the  war  with  Spain. 
He  was  one  of  the  number  who  departed  thence  in  White- 
field's  sloop  for  the  Forks  of  the  Delaware  ;  and,  shortly  after 
his  arrival,  felt  called  to  devote  his  life  to  the  spread  of  the 
Gospel  among  the  aborigines. 

Zeisberger  spent  a  number  of  years  at  the  several  mission- 
stations  of  his  brethren  ;  at  Shamokin,  near  the  Forks  of  the 
Susquehanna,  on  the  upper  Lehigh,  and  in  the  valley  of 
Wyoming — mostly  among  the  Shawnees,  the  Delawares,  the 


1755]          DAVID  ZEISBERGER,   THE  MORAVIAN.  28l 

newly-arrived  Nanticokes,  and  the  Monseys  or  Minisinks. 
Having  been  adopted  into  the  Turtle  clan  of  the  tribe  of  the 
Onondagas,  he  went  in  1750,  with  a  single  companion,  on  an 
embassy  to  the  Six  Nations,  to  solicit  permission  to  maintain 
a  mission  among  them,  as  the  French  Jesuits  had  done  years 
before.  Their  wilderness-journey  was  attended  with  many 
hardships  and  dangers,  yet  still  greater  perils  awaited  them 
when  they  arrived  at  the  capital  village  of  the  Senecas.  From 
afar  they  heard  the  shouting  of  the  savages,  frenzied  with 
the  liquor  which  white  traders  had  sold  them.  Affrighted  at 
their  repulsive  reception — the  awful  laughter,  the  yells,  and 
the  heathen  abominations — they  sought  refuge  in  the  loft  of 
one  of  the  low  houses ;  but  at  the  first  opportunity  escaped 
through  a  hole  in  the  roof,  and  made  their  way  to  the  neigh 
boring  country  of  the  Onondagas — to  the  central  council-fire 
of  the  Six  Nations. 

The  Indian  council  complied  with  the  request  of  Zeisberger 
to  establish  a  mission,  but  unfortunately  for  its  prospect  of 
good  service,  the  war  with  France  soon  interfered  with  its 
operations,  and  the  Indians  were  easily  drawn  aside  into  the 
war-path.  At  Gnadenhiitten  on  the  Lehigh,  nearly  all  of  the 
missionaries,  with  their  families,  were  massacred  in  the  autumn 
°f  J755j  shortly  after  the  defeat  of  Braddock. 

At  an  Indian  treaty  held  at  Carlisle,  a  little  later,  one  of  the  Iro- 
quois  chiefs,  speaking  in  behalf  of  all  the  Indians  present,  expressed 
himself  to  the  following  effect :  "The  rum  ruins  us.  We  beg  that 
you  would  prevent  its  coming  in  such  quantities,  by  regulating  the 
traders.  We  never  understood  the  trading  was  for  whiskey.  We 
desire  it  may  be  forbidden,  and  none  sold  in  the  Indian  country  ; 
but  that  if  the  Indians  will  have  any,  they  may  go  amongst  the 
inhabitants  and  deal  with  them  for  it.  When  those  whiskey  traders 
come,  they  bring  30  or  40  kegs,  put  them  down  before  us  and  make 
us  drink,  and  get  all  the  skins  that  should  go  to  pay  the  debts  we 
have  contracted  for  goods  bought  of  the  fair  traders ;  and  by  these 
means  we  not  only  ruin  ourselves,  but  others  too.  These  wicked 
24* 


282  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1763 

whiskey  dealers,  when  they  have  once  got  the  Indians  in  liquor, 
make  them  sell  their  very  clothes  from  their  backs.  In  short,  if 
this  practice  is  continued,  we  must  be  inevitably  ruined.  We  most 
earnestly,  therefore,  beseech  you  to  remedy  it." 

Once  more,  in  1763,  when  prosperity  seemed  ready  again 
to  smile  on  the  missions,  that  widely-extended  combination 
of  the  Indian  tribes,  known  as  the  Conspiracy  of  Pontiac, 
frustrated  the  benevolent  hopes  of  Zeisberger  and  his  coadju 
tors.  The  Moravian  Indians  were  then  unjustly  accused  of 
being  in  league  with  Pontiac's  warriors.  Special  bitterness 
was  exhibited  toward  them  by  the  Scotch-Irish  settlers  on  the 
Pennsylvania  frontier,  who  professed  to  believe  that  the  In 
dians  were  the  Canaanites  of  the  New  World,  and  that  the 
existing  war  had  come  upon  the  colonies  as  a  judgment  for 
failing  to  totally  exterminate  the  native  tribes.  The  Moravian 
Indians  were  precisely  in  the  same  strait  as  were  the  Praying 
Indians  of  Massachusetts  when  the  war  with  Philip  of  Poka- 
noket  was  raging. 

In  order  that  these  Indians  (one  of  whom  was  accused  of 
a  murder)  might  be  safe  from  the  deadly  threats  of  their 
enemies,  it  was  ordered  that  they  should  deliver  up  their  rifles 
and  allow  themselves  to  be  brought  to  Philadelphia.  This 
was  accordingly  done.  They  were  marched  to  the  military 
quarters,  but  the  soldiers,  with  levelled  muskets,  threatened  to 
kill  them,  if  they  were  not  taken  away.  Imprecations  and 
revilements  were  poured  out  upon  the  refugees,  and  the  streets 
"rang  with  yells  and  shouts  which  sounded  as  fierce  as  the 
war-whoop  of  the  savages."  Meantime,  Zeisberger  and  the 
other  missionaries  stood  faithfully  by  them,  while  many  of  the 
Friends,  indifferent  to  the  scorn  of  the  rabble,  took  the  In 
dians  by  the  hand  and  addressed  them  as  brethren.  Neverthe 
less,  as  a  measure  of  safety,  the  Indians  were  quickly  removed 
to  an  island  in  the  river.  Several  hundred  Scotch-Irish  from 
near  Lancaster — the  "  Paxton  Boys"  they  were  called — after 


1781]         DAVID  ZEISBERGER,   THE   MORAVIAN.  283 

butchering  a  number  of  Conestoga  Indians  who  had  taken 
refuge  in  a  jail,  marched  toward  Philadelphia,  threatening  to 
exterminate  the  refugees  there  ;  but  they  were  finally  induced 
to  desist  from  their  murderous  intent. 

Several  months  later  (1764),  when  the  excitement  had  sub 
sided,  these  Indians  were  taken  to  the  upper  Susquehanna 
region,  beyond  the  Wyoming  valley,  where  they  built  the  vil 
lage  of  Friedenshiitten,  or  "  Tents  of  Peace."  This  place  was 
as  neatly  laid  out  as  any  New  England  hamlet,  being  entirely 
surrounded  by  a  post-and-rail  fence,  every  house  having  its 
garden  and  orchard,  and  everything  kept  scrupulously  clean. 
In  summer,  it  was  the  custom  for  a  party  of  women  frequently 
to  pass  through  the  several  streets  and  alleys,  sweeping  them 
with  brooms  and  removing  the  rubbish. 

In  1768 -and  1770,  Zeisberger  established  stations  among 
the  Monseys,  on  the  Alleghany  and  Beaver  rivers.  A  little 
later,  these  and  the  converts  from  the  Susquehanna,  were 
concentrated  in  several  settlements  in  the  valley  of  the  Tusca- 
rawas,  in  eastern  Ohio,  and  for  ten  years  the  Moravian  missions 
flourished  greatly,  being  frequented  by  hundreds  of  natives, 
some  even  from  the  far  west.  But  in  1781,  near  the  close  of 
the  American  revolution,  a  body  of  hostile  Delawares,  under 
Captain  Pipe,  a  chief,  and  of  Wyandottes  under  their  "  Half- 
king,"  at  British  instigation  broke  up  the  peaceful  settlements, 
and  carried  the  Indians  off  to  Sandusky,  and  their  teachers  to 
the  British  head-quarters  at  Detroit. 

But  a  far  worse  catastrophe  befel  this  people  the  next  year, 
when  a  party  of  them  came  back  to  the  Tuscarawas  valley  to 
harvest  the  corn  which  had  been  left  standing-  in  the  fields. 
Their  return  happened  at  the  time  of  the  murder  of  a  settler 
and  all  his  family  by  a  band  of  hostile  Indians.  The  event 
caused  such  an  excited  and  unreasoning  feelin^tp^  prevail 
among  the  frontiersmen,  that  a  company  was  speedily  organ 
ized  to  proceed  to  the  Tuscarawas  valley,  and  to  punish  the 


284  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1781 

Moravian  Indians  as  spies  and  abettors  of  the  murder.  The 
commander  of  the  expedition  was  named  David  Williamson. 
Dissembling  their  real  purpose,  they  greeted  the  Indians  in 
a  friendly  manner,  and  informed  them  that  they  had  come  to 
carry  them  to  a  place  of  safety,  where  they  would  be  well  taken 
care  of;  that  the  whites  would  also  take  charge  of  their  guns, 
for  safe-keeping ;  and  that  it  would  be  best  to  burn  down  the 
houses  to  prevent  their  harboring  any  warriors. 

The  Indians,  to  the  number  of  ninety,  being  now  at  the 
mercy  of  the  Americans,  they  were  readily  made  prisoners, 
and  a  council  was  held  to  decide  upon  their  fate.  It  was 
promptly-  determined  that  they  should  all  be  put  to  death ; 
though  some  further  debate  ensued  as  to  whether  it  would  be 
preferable  to  set  fire  to  the  two  large  houses  in  which  the  cap 
tives  were  kept,  and  burn  them  alive,  or  whether  to  tomahawk 
and  scalp  them,  so  that  the  militia  might  carry  back  with  them 
some  trophies  of  the  campaign.  The  latter  plan  had  the 
preference.  The  Christians  being  informed  of  their  doom, 
began  to  sing,  and  to  pray,  and  to  comfort  one  another. 
Thus  the  night  went  by,  and  when  the  morning  broke  the 
militia  selected  two  buildings  which  they  called  "slaughter 
houses,"  in  which  they  carried  out  their  awful  purpose:  the 
men  and  boys  were  butchered  in  one — the  women  and  babes 
in  the  other.  There  were  in  all  29  men,  27  women  and  34 
children,  who  thus  perished  at  the  MASSACRE  OF  GNADEN- 
HUTTEN,  the  "Tents  of  Grace!"  Which  were  Christ's  sol 
diers  ?  which  were  the  conquerors  ?  and  with  whom  was  the 
glory  ? 

Although  greatly  cast  down  by  the  news  of  the  massacre, 
Zeisberger  did  not  relax  his  endeavors  to  civilize  and  make 
Christians  of  the  Indians,  being  mostly  engaged  in  the  neigh 
borhood  of  Sandusky  and  Detroit,  and  in  Canada  at  a  flour 
ishing  station  which  was  named  Fairfield.  After  the  lapse  of 
sixteen  years,  some  of  the  converts,  led  by  Zeisberger,  returned 


1757]    CANADA   CONQUERED  FROM  THE  FRENCH.      285 

to  the  Tuscarawas.  For  a  while  the  new  settlement  pros 
pered.  A  memorial  was  presented  to  the  Ohio  legislature, 
asking  for  the  passage  of  a  bill  prohibiting  any  spirituous 
liquors  to  be  offered  for  sale  or  barter  in  any  town  of  the 
Indians ;  but  in  consequence  of  the  influx  of  settlers  upon 
the  reservation  the  prohibitory  law  could  not  be  enforced. 
Not  only  passing  traders,  but  the  near  neighbors,  tempted 
the  Indians  in  every  possible  way,  waylaying  them  in  the 
forest  while  hunting  or  engaged  in  other  pursuits,  and,  hav 
ing  supplied  them  with  liquor,  lured  them  into  bargains  very 
much  to  their  disadvantage.  Zeisberger  died  in  1808,  hav 
ing  been  sixty  years  a  faithful  laborer  among  the  Indians. 
The  Tuscarawas  valley  was  soon  forsaken  by  the  red  men, 
who  retired  first  to  Canada,  and  eventually  to  the  Moravian 
mission-station  in  Kansas. 


CANADA  CONQUERED  FROM  THE  FRENCH. 

We  must  now  turn  back  to  the  events  which  immediately 
succeeded  the  successes  of  Montcalm  in  1756  and  1757,  when 
the  French  power  prevailed  throughout  all  the  territory  of  the 
St.  Lawrence,  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Mississippi  and  their  tribu 
tary  streams.  Three  principal  routes,  along  which  were  forti 
fied  posts,  connected  the  St.  Lawrence  with  the  Mississippi. 
The  nearest  to  the  English  frontier  was  that  via  Erie,  Fort 
Du  Quesne  and  the  Ohio ;  the  second,  by  way  of  the  Mau- 
mee  and  the  Wabash  ;  the  third,  by  the  route  of  the  Illinois. 
If  the  reader  will  examine  his  map,  he  will  observe  that  the 
intercommunication  by  water  was  very  nearly  continuous  in  all. 

In  truth  the  French  claimed,  and  appeared  to  control, 
twenty  times  as  much  of  the  American  continent  as  did  the 
English,  who  were  now  confined  to  the  peninsula  of  Nova 
Scotia  and  a  narrow  strip  along  the  Atlantic  coast  from  the 
Penobscot  to  the  St.  Mary's  of  Florida,  averaging  about  200 


286  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1758 

miles  in  width.  But  the  French  domain  was  very  sparsely 
occupied,  and  when,  after  the  victory  on  Lake  George,  the 
Canadian  soldiers  went  back  to  their  homes,  there  was  but  a 
slight  harvest  gathered,  and  a  general  famine  threatened.  Beef 
and  bread  and  similar  necessaries  of  life,  were  so  scarce  that 
great  numbers  of  horses  were  distributed  for  food.  Artisans 
and  laborers  became  too  weak  to  follow  their  daily  occupations.^ 

On  the  other  hand,  there  had  been  a  change  in  the  English 
ministry,  by  which  William  Pitt  (afterward  Lord  Chatham) 
a  man  very  popular  with  the  Americans,  had  been  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  administration.  30,000  regular  troops 
were  sent  across  to  America.  The  same  number  of  militia 
having  been  raised  in  the  colonies,  three  expeditions  were 
planned  for  the  year  1758,  to  wit,  against  Louisburg,  Fort 
Du  Quesne  and  Ticonderoga,  respectively.  General  ABER- 
CROMBIE  was  appointed  commander-in-chief,  to  succeed  the 
Earl  of  Loudoun. 

Abercrombie  himself  led  the  attack  on  Ticonderoga,  a 
strong  fortress  situated  south  of  Crown  Point,  on  the  long 
river-like  prolongation  of  Lake  Champlain,  whence  a  short  di 
verging  channel  connects  its  waters  with  those  of  Lake  George. 
But  Montcalm,  who  commanded  the  garrison,  repulsed  the 
English,  inflicting  upon  them  a  heavy  loss.  A  detachment 
of  Abercrombie's  defeated  army,  under  Colonel  Bradstreet, 
then  proceeded  against  Fort  Frontenac  (now  Kingston),  at  the 
eastern  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario, — the  post  at  which  the  voyager 
La  Salle  was  stationed  prior  to  his  eventful  expedition  of  dis 
covery  to  the  Mississippi.  Although  well  supplied  with  cannon 
and  mortars,  it  surrendered  the  second  day  to  the  army  of 
Bradstreet. 

The  expedition  against  Louisburg  was  led  by  Generals  Am- 
herst  and  Wolfe,  assisted  by  the  fleet  of  Admiral  Boscawen. 
The  investing  force  greatly  exceeded  that  of  the  garrison,  the 
latter,  with  the  mariners,  numbering  less  than  6000  men. 


1759]     CANADA   CONQUERED  FROM  THE  FRENCH.      287 

After  a  siege  of  several  weeks  the  fortress  capitulated,  and,  as 
a  consequence,  both  the  islands  of  Cape  Breton  and  Prince 
Edward's  became  British  possessions;  while  Louisburg,  being 
no  longer  of  value  to  its  captors,  was  deserted  and  fell  into 
decay,  Halifax  becoming  the  naval  station. 

The  third  main  expedition,  that  directed  against  Fort  Du 
Quesne,  was  placed  under  the  command  of  General  Forbes, 
who  was  assisted  by  Colonels  Armstrong  and  Washington. 
The  army  proceeded  slowly,  harassed  by  parties  of  French  and 
Indians,  and  opening  a  wide  road  as  it  advanced, — the  same 
which  is  now  the  line  of  the  Chambersburg  and  Pittsburg 
turnpike.  Upon  arriving  at  the  Ohio,  they  found  that  the 
French,  without  awaiting  a  siege,  had  deserted  the  fort  and 
set  it  on  fire.  In  honor  of  the  English  minister  the  place  was 
then  called  Fort  Pitt  or  PITTSBURG.  Stimulated  by  these 
successes,  and  the  promise  of  the  English  government  to  re 
imburse  them  for  their  expenses,  the  colonies  were  ready  the 
following  year  to  undertake  the  conquest  of  Canada,  agreeably 
to  the  programme  of  Pitt. 

Early  in  the  spring  of  1759,  a  powerful  fleet,  conveying  an 
army  which  had  been  placed  under  the  command  of  the  young 
General  Wolfe,  sailed  from  England  for  the  St.  Lawrence,  and 
at  the  same  time  General  AMHERST  (Abercrombie's  successor) 
advanced,  with  a  co-operating  force,  along  Lake  Champlain. 
The  French  garrisons  at  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  there 
upon  withdrew  from  those  posts,  and  went  to  the  relief  of 
Montreal  and  Quebec.  The  latter  city,  which  is  divided 
into  an  upper  and  lower  town,  was  very  strongly  fortified  with 
munitions  of  defence,  and  had  also  a  garrison  of  about  10,000 
men  ;  but  the  English  army  having  succeeded  in  scaling  the 
cliffs  at  night,  and  in  reaching  the  plains  or  "Heights  of 
Abraham,"  in  the  rear  of  the  city,  it  soon  fell  into  their  hands. 
The  struggle  was  a  sanguinary  one,  and  Wolfe  and  Montcalm 
both  fell,  mortally  wounded.  In  the  following  winter,  the 


288  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1760 

English  garrison  who  held  possession  of  Quebec,  suffered 
greatly  from  lack  of  fresh  provisions,  as  many  as  a  thousand 
soldiers  dying  of  the  scurvy. 

While  Quebec  was  being  besieged,  another  division  had  at 
tacked  and  obtained  possession  of  the  French  fort  at  Niagara. 
This  result  was  mainly  owing  to  the  influence  exercised  by 
Sir  William  Johnson  over  the  Six  Nations,  in  inducing  a 
large  body  of  the  warriors  to  break  the  neutrality  which 
most  of  them  had  promised  to  observe  toward  both  the  com 
bating  powers.  Montreal  was  now  the  only  place  of  conse 
quence  yet  remaining  to  the  French,  and  in  the  following 
year  it  also  succumbed  to  the  combined  forces  of  the  English. 
Presque  Isle,  Detroit  and  Mackinaw,  were  included  in  the 
capitulation,  so  that  Canada  became  in  1760,  as  it  has  ever 
since  remained,  a  province  of  Great  Britain.  By  the  PEACE 
OF  PARIS  in  1763,  all  the  northern  possessions  of  the  French, 
as  well  as  those  east  of  the  Mississippi,  were  formally  con 
firmed  as  belonging  to  the  English.  Louisiana,  west  of  the 
Mississippi,  was  given  by  France  to  Spain,  in  payment  for  aid 
afforded. 

The  result  of  the  Seven  Years'  War,  in  Europe,  has  been 
thus  summed  up :  "  Thus  was  arrested  the  course  of  carnage 
and  misery ;  of  sorrows  in  private  life,  infinite  and  unfathom 
able  ;  of  wretchedness  heaped  on  wretchedness ;  of  public 
poverty  and  calamity  ;  of  forced  enlistments  and  extorted 
contributions ;  and  all  the  unbridled  tyranny  of  military 
power  in  the  day  of  danger.  France  was  exhausted  of  one- 
half  of  her  specie  ;  in  many  parts  of  Germany  there  remained 
not  enough  of  men  and  of  cattle  to  renew  cultivation.  The 
number  of  the  dead  in  arms  is  computed  at  886,000  on  the 
battle-fields  of  Europe  or  on  the  way  to  them."  The  same 
Seven  Years'  War  also  doubled  the  debt  of  England. 


CHAPTER   XXII. 
GEORGE  III.     COLONIAL   DISCONTENT. 
1760—1775. 


THE   CONSPIRACY   OF   PONTIAC. 

THE  colonists  had  confidently  supposed,  upon  the  declara 
tion  of  peace  with  the  French,  that  they  would  have  little  to 
fear  from  the  enmity  of  the  Indians.  But  in  this  belief  they 
were  destined  to  be  mistaken.  The  Indians,  it  is  true,  had 
willingly  agreed  to  the  establishment  of  the  French  forts 
upon  Lake  Erie  and  on  the  Pennsylvania  frontier,  seeing  that 
they  were  likely  to  prove  an  obstacle  to  English  encroach 
ments  upon  their  hunting-grounds ;  but  when  they  saw  these 
same  posts  occupied  by  the  English  themselves,  the  conquerors 
of  Canada,  they  realized  with  dismay  that  their  own  doom 
was  approaching.  Settlers,  with  no  regard  for  aboriginal 
rights,  were  already  passing  the  Alleghanies  and  locating  upon 
their  lands.  In  this  extremity  they  listened  with  eagerness  to 
the  emissaries  of  the  great  chief  PONTIAC,  of  the  tribe  of  the 
Ottawas. 

The  nation  of  the  Shawnees,  together  with  the  Delawares, 
now  dwelt  in  the  region  of  the  Miami  and  Scioto  rivers, 
whither  the  latter  had  emigrated  after  their  expulsion  from 
Pennsylvania.  Through  the  instigation  of  Pontiac,  a  wide 
spread  conspiracy  was  entered  into  between  these  disaffected 
tribes  and  the  others  with  which  the  French  had  been  allied, 
as  also  with  the  Seneca  tribe  of  the  Six  Nations.  Upon  an 
N  25  289 


2 9o  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1764 

appointed  day  in  the  summer  of  1763  (it  being  the  25th 
anniversary  of  the  birthday  of  King  George  the  Third)  a 
simultaneous  attack  was  made  along  the  whole  western  border. 

The  English  traders  among  the  Indians  were  the  first  vic 
tims.  With  but  two  or  three  exceptions,  they  were  all  killed  ; 
for  this  war  was  begun  as  o«e  of  retribution,  in  which  the  plea 
for  mercy'  should  pass  unheard.  Scalping  parties  attacked 
the  mountain  settlements  and  marked  their  tracks  with  blood 
and  fire.  The  forts  also,  with  few  exceptions,  were  captured, 
and  the  garrisons  put  to  death.  All  who  could  escape,  fled 
to  the  eastward  and  sought  shelter  in  the  larger  towns.  A 
proclamation  was  issued  by  John  Penn,  lieutenant-governor 
of  Pennsylvania,  offering  bounties  for  the  scalps  of  Indians 
or  for  their  capture. 

In  order  to  repel  this  fierce  onslaught  of  the  Indians,  Gen 
eral  GAGE,  who  had  succeeded  Amherst  in  the  chief  command, 
sent  two  expeditions  into  their  own  country.  One  of  these, 
commanded  by  Colonel  Bouquet,  was  to  proceed  from  Fort 
Pitt  into  the  Ohio  region ;  the  other,  under  Bradstreet,  by 
way  of  the  Great  Lakes,  was  to  relieve  Detroit,  which  had 
been  closely  besieged  for  several  months  by  the  warriors  of 
Pontiac.  Both  of  these  expeditions  were  successful.  The 
Indians  despairing  of  the  accomplishment  of  their  designs, 
consented  to  a  treaty,  by  which  they  agreed  to  deliver  up  the 
prisoners  then  in  their  hands,  and  thenceforth  to  permit  the 
British  to  build  as  many  forts  as  they  wished. 

COLONIAL   TAXATION.     THE   STAMP  ACT. 

For  the  purpose  of  raising  in  the  colonies  a  revenue  to  de 
fray  the  expenses  of  the  French  war,  an  act  was  passed  by  the 
English  parliament  in  1764,  adding  to  the  number  of  im 
ported  articles  liable  to  pay  duty,  and  also  prohibiting  iron 
and  lumber  from  being  exported  to  any  country  except  Eng- 


1767]  THE   STAMP  ACT.  291 

land.  It  was  likewise  proposed— for  the  same  object  of 
liquidating  the  war  expenditure — to  impose  a  stamp  tax  on 
bills,  bonds,  leases,  and  upon  all  legal  documents,  according 
to  the  method  long  practised  in  England.  The  news  of  the 
proposed  measure  was  received  with  great  clamor  in  the  col 
onies,  it  being  strenuously  objetted  that  no  people  should  be 
taxed  without  their  consent,  and  without  having  their  repre 
sentatives  in  the  assembly  or  parliament  which  laid  the  tax. 

Samuel  Adams  and  James  Otis,  in  Massachusetts  ;  Benjamin 
Franklin,  in  Pennsylvania;  and  Patrick  Henry,  in  Virginia, 
were  outspoken  in  opposition  to  the  scheme,  while  petitions 
drawn  up  by  the  leading  men  of  several  of  the  colonies,  were 
forwarded  for  presentation  to  parliament.  Notwithstanding 
these  remonstrances,  the  Stamp  Act  became  a  law  the  follow 
ing  year  (1765). 

The  assembly  of  Virginia  was  in  session  when  the  informa 
tion  arrived,  and  adopted  strong  resolutions  in  opposition  to 
the  act.  In  the  Massachusetts  assembly  similar  action  was 
taken,  and  a  call  was  issued  for  a  general  Congress  of  the 
colonies,  to  be  held  at  New  York.  Nine  of  the  colonies  sent 
delegates,  who  united  in  publishing  a  declaration  of  their 
rights  and  grievances,  especially  complaining  of  the  Stamp 
Act,  and  insisting  that  all  taxation  ought  to  be  imposed  by 
their  own  assemblies.  After  disgraceful  riots  and  assaults 
upon  the  crown  officers  and  their  property  had  occurred  in 
several  of  the  cities,  the  obnoxious  act  which  had  proved  so 
distasteful  was  repealed. 

Parliament,  however,  in  repealing  the  Stamp  Act,  held  on 
to  the  declaration  that  it  had  the  right  to  "  bind  the  colonies 
in  all  cases  whatsoever."  Hence,  another  bill  was  passed  in 
1767,  imposing  a  duty  on  tea,  paint,  paper,  glass,  etc.,  and  com 
missioners  were  appointed  to  attend  to  its  collection.  Where 
upon  it  was  agreed  by  many  people  in  the  colonies  to  discon 
tinue  the  importation  of  British  goods,  and  to  make  use  only 


29 2  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1773 

of  those  articles,  absolutely  necessary,  which  could  be  supplied 
at  home.  The  crown  officers  having  suffered  losses  in  the  re 
cent  Stamp  Act  riots,  two  British  regiments  were  sent  over  to 
Boston,  and  quartered  in  the  town.  The  result  of  the  first 
year's  trial  of  the  new  customs-act  was  a  revenue  of  less  than 
^£16,000,  nearly  all  of  which,  however,  was  required  to  pay 
the  expenses  of  its  collection  ;  while  in  addition  to  that,  the 
cost  of  support  of  the  military  amounted  to  ten  times  the 
revenue  above  stated. 

The  presence  of  the  troops  in  Boston  was  a  source  of  con 
tinual  trouble,  the  hostile  feeling  against  the  military  being 
kept  bitterly  alive  by  a  weekly  paper  there  published.  Finally, 
a  mob  of  men  and  boys,  encouraged  by  the  popular  sympathy, 
made  a  practice  of  insulting  and  provoking  the  troops,  and 
as  a  natural  result — several  minor  brawls  having  first  occurred, 
— a  more  serious  collision  took  place,  in  which  a  number  of 
the  inhabitants  were  killed  and  wounded.  This  encounter, 
which  was  styled  the  "Boston  Massacre,"  produced  great  ex 
citement  throughout  the  colonies,  the  inhabitants  now  being 
divided  in  sentiment  into  two  parties  :  the  Tories,  or  those 
who  favored  the  mother  country,  and  Whigs,  or  opponents  of 
parliamentary  taxation. 


THE    TAX    ON    TEA.     BOSTON    PORT    BILL. 

The  disuse  of  British  goods  had  so  seriously  affected  the 
trade  of  the  English  merchants,  and  at  the  same  time  so  fa 
vored  colonial  manufactures,  that  parliament,  in  response  to 
the  petitions  of  the  merchants,  agreed  to  repeal  the  duties  on 
all  articles  except  that  of  three  pence  per  pound  on  tea.  This 
was  retained,  apparently,  more  for  the  purpose  of  insisting 
on  the  right  to  impose  the  tax,  than  because  it  was  likely  to 
produce  any  considerable  revenue.  Yet  the  colonists  were 
opposed  to  the  principle,  however  small  the  tax,  and  hence 


1774]  BOSTON  FOR T  BILL.  293 

they  refused  to  import  any  of  the  article.  But  in  order  to 
test  their  right,  Parliament,  in  1773,  encouraged  the  East 
India  Company  to  send  a  cargo  of  tea  to  each  of  the  principal 
American  ports. 

In  New  York  and  Philadelphia,  the  commanders  of  the 
ships  finding  no  one  willing  to  receive  their  cargoes,  returned 
with  them  to  England.  At  Charleston,  the  tea  was  indeed 
landed,  but  allowed  to  become  worthless  by  being  stored  in  a 
damp  warehouse;  while  at  Boston,  a  party  of  young  men  dis 
guised  as  Indians,  went  on  board  the  vessels,  and  threw  the 
consignment  of  over  300  chests  into  the  harbor.  In  conse 
quence  of  this  and  the  former  riotous  proceedings,  the  city  of 
Boston,  which  was  regarded  as  the  chief  seat  of  rebellion,  was 
selected  by  parliament  as  the  special  object  of  its  displeasure. 
By  an  act  called  the  "Boston  Port  Bill,"  all  intercourse  by 
water  with  that  place  was  interdicted  ;  the  seat  of  government 
was  removed  to  Salem,  and  the  governor  was  authorized,  in 
cases  of  treason,  to  send  the  accused  for  trial  to  England.  For 
awhile  the  people  of  Boston  were  deprived,  to  a  great  extent, 
of  the  means  of  subsistence;  but  their  necessities  were  soon 
relieved  by  contributions  from  various  quarters. 

Meanwhile,  in  the  spring  of  1774,  General  Gage,  the  king's 
commander  of  the  British  forces  in  America,  arrived  in  Boston 
with  a  commission  as  governor  of  Massachusetts  ;  and  shortly 
afterward  more  troops  and  military  stores  were  landed.  Prom 
inent  men  in  Massachusetts  thereupon  formed  a  committee  of 
correspondence,  and  drew  up  an  agreement  called  a  "  Solemn 
League  and  Covenant,"  wherein  they  pledged  themselves 
to  give  up  all  intercourse  with  Great  Britain  until  the  colo 
nial  rights  should  be  restored.  But  the  general  court  of 
Massachusetts  went  farther  than  this  :  a  militia  force  was  en 
rolled,  officers  appointed,  and  military  stores  were  ordered  to 
be  collected. 

Finally,  in  the  Qth  month  (September)  of  the  same  year, 

25* 


294  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1767 

delegates  from  eleven  of  the  colonies  met  at  Philadelphia,  and 
formed  themselves  into  an  assembly  known  as  the  Continental 
Congress.  It  was  composed  of  55  members,  who  appointed 
PEYTON  RANDOLPH,  of  Virginia,  their  president.  They  pre 
pared  a  declaration  of  the  rights  of  the  colonies  ;  agreed  to 
continue  the  plan  of  non-intercourse  with  Great  Britain  ;  and 
issued  an  address  to  the  king,  another  to  the  colonies,  and  a 
third  to  the  English  people.  But  the  king,  being  assured  by 
parliament  that  a  rebellion  actually  existed  in  Massachusetts, 
the  army  in  Boston  was  increased  to  10,000  men.  At  this 
time  Benjamin  Franklin,  as  the  agent  of  Pennsylvania  and 
several  others  of  the  colonies,  was  in  England,  endeavoring  to 
effect  a  settlement  of  difficulties  with  the  home  government. 
Before  referring  particularly  to  his  efforts,  some  reference 
should  be  here  made  to  a  few  contemporaneous  events  in 
several  of  the  colonies. 

OCCURRENCES  IN  SEVERAL  OF  THE  COLONIES. 

After  many  vexatious  delays  and  disagreements  between  the 
proprietaries  of  Maryland  and  Pennsylvania  respecting  the 
division  line  between  the  two  provinces,  it  was  finally  de 
termined,  in  1767,  that  its  course  should  be  in  accordance 
with  an  agreement  which  had  been  made  35  years  before. 
Charles  Mason  and  Jeremiah  Dixon,  two  distinguished  mathe 
maticians  and  astronomers  (who  had  just  returned  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  whither  they  had  gone  to  observe  the 
transit  of  Venus),  were  designated  to  run  the  line,  and  to 
erect  stone  pillars  at  conspicuous  points  along  the  same. 
"  Mason's-and-Dixon's  Line"  subsequently  became  famous,  as 
marking  the  parallel  of  separation  between  the  free-soil  and 
the  slave  states. 

Although  bounded  on  the  east  by  a  large  river,  and  on  the 
other  three  sides  by  nearly  straight  lines,  Pennsylvania  was 


1774]        OCCURRENCES  IN  SEVERAL    COLONIES.          295 

involved  in  a  number  of  other  disputes  relative  to  its  bound 
aries.  Connecticut  people  settled  on  lands  in  the  Wyoming 
valley,  in  1762,  alleging  that  their  province,  by  virtue  of  the 
king's  grant  to  the  Plymouth  Company,  extended  westward 
even  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  This  claim  resulted  in  bloody  con 
flicts  with  the  settlers  who  held  grants  from  the  proprietaries. 
Little  forts  were  built,  hamlets  were  burned,  and  goods  and 
cattle  carried  away.  The  matter  was  finally  referred  to  the 
king  for  adjudication. — In  1774,  Lord  Dunmore,  of  Virginia, 
granted  land-warrants  for  settlements  upon  the  Monongahela 
river,  and  in  the  neighborhood  of  Pittsburg,  asserting  that 
that  section  was  no  part  of  Pennsylvania  ;  but  his  settlers  were 
driven  off,  and  a  serious  war  between  Virginia  and  the  western 
Indians  also  ensued.  Prominent  in  this  war  were  the  Indian 
chiefs  Cornstalk  and  Logan ;  the  family  of  the  latter  having 
previously,  without  provocation,  all  been  murdered. — Like 
disturbances  arose  in  the  settling  of  that  part  of  the  country 
between  the  Connecticut  and  Hudson  rivers,  now  the  state  of 
Vermont,  for  which  the  governors  of  New  York  and  New 
Hampshire  both  issued  grants.  This  was  also  referred  to 
England  for  settlement.  (See  page  330). 

About  the  time  that  Mason's-and-Dixon's  line  was  run, 
an  earnest  controversy  arose  in  Massachusetts  touching  the 
legality  and  the  justice  of  negro  slavery.  The  subject  was 
carried  for  decision  to  the  Superior  Court,  and  in  a  number 
of  suits  which  ensued,  the  juries  invariably  gave  their  verdict 
in  favor  of  freedom.  An  important  decision  of  the  same 
nature  was  given  in  1772  by  the  court  of  King's  Bench,  in 
London,  before  which  had  been  brought  a  Virginia  slave  who 
had  come  with  his  master  to  England.  Refusing  any  longer 
to  serve,  he  had  been  put  on  board  a  vessel  to  be  shipped  to 
Jamaica.  The  court  ordered  that  the  black  should  be  dis 
charged.  This  important  decision  served  as  a  precedent  in 
all  succeeding  cases  on  the  soil  of  Britain. 


296  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1769 

In  New  Jersey,  Maryland  and  the  Carolinas,  there  were 
many  complaints  of  official  extortion,  of  antagonism  to  lawyers 
and  sheriffs,  who,  it  was  alleged,  exacted  unjust  fees  and  ren 
dered  no  account  thereof  to  their  superiors  in  office.  The 
trouble  from  this  source  was  greatest  in  the  middle  section 
of  North  Carolina,  a  rather  barren,  unfruitful  region,  with  a 
population  mostly  poor  and  illiterate.  Under  the  name  of 
"Regulators,"  they  not  only  refused  to  pay  taxes,  but  as 
saulted  the  judges,  lawyers,  and  all  others  obnoxious  to  them, 
and  even  broke  up  the  session  of  the  court.  Governor  TRYON 
marched  against  them  with  a  body  of  volunteers,  and  having 
overtaken  them  at  Alamance,  near  the  head-waters  of  Cape 
Fear  river,  a  battle  was  fought  in  the  summer  of  1771.  It  re 
sulted  in  the  death  of  about  200  of  the  disaffected  ones.  Some 
of  the  prisoners  were  also  executed  for  high  treason.  A  bitter 
feeling  arose  as  a  consequence  of  this  severe  retaliatory  meas 
ure,  and  it  was  not  allayed  until  Tryon  departed  for  New  York 
and  a  governor  succeeded  whose  conciliatory  treatment  of  the 
malcontents  made  them  his  friends. 

While  these  disturbances  were  transpiring,  the  first  settle 
ments  were  made  within  the  borders  of  the  present  states  of 
Tennessee  and  Kentucky.  Emigrants  from  North  Carolina, 
led  by  JAMES  ROBINSON,  crossing  the  mountain  barriers  of  the 
Blue  Ridge  and  the  Alleghanies  (1768),  settled  upon  one  of 
the  headstreams  of  the  Tennessee,  on  lands  obtained  from  the 
Cherokees.  Others  soon  advanced  to  the  Holston  and  Clinch 
rivers,  and  ascending  those  streams,  located  in  the  south-west 
corner  of  the  present  state  of  Virginia. 

From  the  Yadkin  valley  of  North  Carolina,  DANIEL  BOONE 
and  others,  led  by  an  Indian  trader,  crossed  the  Cumberland 
mountains  (i  769)  and  reached  the  head-waters  of  the  Kentucky 
river.  From  the  forest-crowned  slopes  of  the  hills,  they  sur 
veyed  the  plains  where,  at  that  time,  herds  of  buffalo  ranged  in 
great  numbers.  But  Boone  was  captured  by  the  Indians,  who 


1764]  NEGOTIATIONS   OF  FRANKLIN.  397 

little  desired  any  irruption  of  the  whites  upon  those  famous 
hunting-grounds.  Escaping,  however,  from  his  captors,  the 
adventurous  hunter  wandered  three  months  in  the  wilderness, 
but  finally  reached  again  his  home  on  the  Yadkin.  Having 
determined  to  settle  in  the  region  which  he  had  discovered, 
he  led  a  small  party  down  the  Clinch  river  valley,  but  in  con 
sequence  of  Lord  Dunmore's  war  with  the  Indians,  a  year  and 
a  half  elapsed  before  their  feet  pressed  the  soil  of  Kentucky. 

NEGOTIATIONS   OF   FRANKLIN   IN   ENGLAND. 

When,  in  1764,  Franklin,  the  philosopher  and  statesman, 
proceeded  to  England  as  the  accredited  agent  of  Pennsylvania 
— and  shortly  afterward  as  agent  also  for  others  of  the  colo 
nies — he  was  destined  to  exert  a  marked  influence  upon  the 
future  of  those  portions  of  the  dominions  of  Britain  which  he 
represented.  Being  examined  before  the  House  of  Commons, 
whose  members  desired  a  definite  statement  of  the  pending 
difficulties,  the  directness  and  freedom  of  his  testimony  were 
largely  instrumental  in  procuring  the  repeal  of  the  obnoxious 
Stamp  Act. 

By  addresses  published  in  the  papers  of  London,  giving 
calm  and  lucid  expositions  of  the  effect  of  English  legislation 
upon  the  commercial  industries  of  the  colonies,  he  endeavored 
to  work  a  change  in  the  tone  of  feeling  toward  America.  He 
instanced  the  fact  that  if  American  merchants  wished  to  obtain 
commodities  direct  from  a  Mediterranean  port,  these  must  be 
carried  a  long  voyage  out  of  the  way,  in  order  that  the  cargo 
might  be  first  landed  and  re-shipped  in  London,  and  that  thus 
a  few  favored  merchants  there  might  reap  their  commissions. 
And  although  iron  was  found  everywhere  in  America,  and 
nails  and  steel  were  greatly  in  demand,  he  showed  how  a  very 
few  manufacturers  had  obtained  an  act  of  parliament,  totally 
prohibiting  the  erection  of  slitting-mills  or  steel-furnaces  in 
N* 


298  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1775 

the  colonies.  And  in  the  same  manner  even  the  hat-makers 
of  England  had  prevailed  to  obtain  an  act  in  their  favor;  re 
straining  the  business  in  the  colonies  in  order  to  oblige  the 
Americans  to  send  the  beaver-skins  to  Britain,  and  buy  back 
the  made-up  hats,  increased  in  price  with  double-charge  of 
transportation. 

These,  and  many  other  cogent  reasons  why  the  laws  of 
trade  and  of  administration  for  the  colonies,  should  be 
altered,  were  presented  by  Franklin  to  the  notice  of  the 
public  and  the  rulers  of  England  during  the  ten  years  that  he 
remained  in  that  country.  And  when  in  the  autumn  of  1774, 
news  arrived  of  the  assembling  of  an  American  Congress  for 
concert  of  action,  he  was  unwearied  in  his  efforts,  by  private 
conversations,  by  published  articles  and  by  letters  to  states 
men,  to  induce  the  government  to  change  its  measures,  giving 
it  as  his  belief  that  notwithstanding  the  attachment  of  the 
colonies  to  the  mother  country,  yet  a  continuance  in  the 
same  arbitrary  course  must  alienate  them  entirely. 

Being  urged  by  Dr.  Fothergill  and  David  Barclay,  promi 
nent  members  of  the  Society  of  Friends,  in  London,  he  pre 
pared  a  careful  statement  of  a  plan  of  reconciliation.  William 
Pitt  (Lord  Chatham)  had  himself  prepared  another  and  some 
what  similar  plan,  and  after  several  consultations  with  Franklin, 
it  was  submitted  to  parliament,  but  was  by  that  body  hastily 
rejected.  Yet  Franklin's  private  interviews  with  the  ministers 
of  state  and  influential  citizens  did  not  cease ;  while  Fother 
gill,  Barclay  and  others,  frankly  condemning  the  injustice  of 
their  own  countrymen,  were  unremitting  in  endeavors  to 
secure  a  compromise  and  avoid  the  effusion  of  blood.  Never 
theless,  their  efforts  proved  unavailing  ;  and  Franklin,  depart 
ing  from  England  in  the  spring  of  1775,  arrived  in  America 
only  to  find  that  war  had  been  actually  begun. 

It  is  well  worth  while,  at  this  momentous  epoch  in  our 
country's  history,  for  the  student  calmly  to  ask  himself: 


1775]  NEGOTIATIONS   OF  FRANKLIN.  299 

What  more  could  America  have  done,  to  prevent  war,  than 
she  did  do  ?  And,  since  England,  without  doubt,  was  clearly 
guilty  of  oppression,  as  well  as  of  injudicious  and  unjust 
methods  of  government,  were  not  the  colonies  justified  in 
resisting  their  oppressors?  Now,  if  we  answer  the  latter 
question  in  accordance  with  the  international  practice  of  the 
last  fifteen  centuries,  we  may  promptly  say  that  the  colonies 
were  justified  in  making  war  to  secure  their  political  rights; 
but  on  the  other  hand,  if  we  are  to  answer  it  according  to  the 
Gospel  rule,  as  well  as  the  Christian  practice  of  the  first  three 
centuries  of  our  era,  we  must  as  certainly  say  that  our  ances 
tors  had  no  right  to  make  war  upon  the  plea  that  they  were 
unjustly  taxed  and  treated.  For,  the  methods  of  protest  and 
prayer,  of  appeal  and  patient  endurance  of  wrong,  still  re 
mained  open,  and  such  sort  alone  are  the  weapons  which  the 
Christian  may  use  to  battle  against  tyranny.  "The  weapons 
of  our  warfare  are  not  carnal,  but  mighty  through  God  to  the 
pulling  down  of  strongholds." 

The  boundaries  of  the  thirteen  colonies  of  Great  Britain, 
as  they  existed  at  the  commencement  of  the  war  of  the  Rev 
olution,  are  shown  on  the  map,  page  331. 


CHAPTER    XXI11. 

THE   AMERICAN   REVOLUTION. 

I775—I783- 


1775-     LEXINGTON   AND    BUNKER   HILL.     CANADA   CAMPAIGN. 

A  QUANTITY  of  ammunition  and  stores  for  the  use  of  the 
provincial  militia,  having  been  deposited  at  Concord,  about 
twenty  miles  west  of  Boston,  General  Gage  sent  a  body  of 
the  king's  troops  under  Colonel  Smith  and  Major  Pitcairn,  to 
seize  or  destroy  them.  Upon  arriving  at  Lexington,  early  in 
the  morning  of  fourth  month  (April)  iQth,  they  found  a  com 
pany  of  armed  militia  assembled  upon  the  common,  ready  to 
dispute  their  progress.  Refusing  to  obey  the  order  of  Pit- 
cairn  to  disperse,  the  latter  commanded  his  troops  to  fire. 
Eight  of  the  Americans  were  killed  and  a  number  wounded. 
The  troops  then  continued  on  to  Concord  and  destroyed  the 
stores  collected  there;  but  on  their  return  toward  Boston 
they  were  severely  harassed  by  the  Americans,  who  were  con 
cealed  behind  barns,  trees  and  stone-walls,  and  who  would 
probably  have  killed  or  captured  the  whole  company  had  re 
inforcements  not  arrived. 

The  battle  of  Lexington  at  once  inflamed  the  passions  of 
the  people,  already  at  fever-heat,  and  the  war  feeling  spread 
like  wild-fire  on  every  side.  It  is  only  requisite,  as  in  the 
case  of  two  individuals  who  have  been  taunting  each  other, 
for  one  to  deliver  a  blow,  to  cause  that  spirit  of  violent  con 
tention  which  leads  to  murder,  to  break  forth  uncontrollably. 
300 


1775]  BATTLE   OF  BUNKER  HILL.  301 

An  army  of  20,000  provincials  was  quickly  mustered,  and  the 
British  troops  were  closely  besieged  on  the  peninsula  of  Boston. 
Considerable  reinforcements,  however,  under  Generals  HOWE, 
CLINTON  and  BURGOYNE  soon  came  to  their  relief  by  sea. 

Learning  that  it  was  the  intention  of  the  British  to  make 
an  advance  into  the  country,  the  Americans  now  began  to 
strengthen  their  position  by  erecting  a  breastwork  on  Bun 
ker's  Hill,  near  the  suburb  of  Charlestown.  This  was  nearly 
completed  during  the  night  of  the  i6th  day  of  6th  month 
(June),  but  in  the  morning  following,  the  British  perceiving 
what  had  been  done,  began  a  severe  cannonade  upon  the 
entrenchments.  Having  set  fire  to  Charlestown,  they  then 
advanced  to  the  attack.  Their  assault  was  for  awhile  repelled, 
but,  receiving  farther  help,  the  provincials  gave  way  and  es 
caped  along  Charlestown  Neck,  where,  exposed  to  the  fire 
from  the  ships,  they  suffered  severely. 

The  forts  of  Ticonderoga  and  Crown  Point  were,  in  the 
meantime,  captured  from  the  royalists,  by  militia  under  Colo 
nels  Ethan  Allen  and  Seth  Warner. 

The  second  Continental  Congress  being  assembled  again  at 
Philadelphia,  the  title  of  the  "United  Colonies"  was  adopted. 
George  Washington,  one  of  the  delegates  from  Virginia,  was 
appointed  commander-in-chief  of  the  army ;  Artemus  Ward, 
Charles  Lee,  Philip  Schuyler  and  Israel  Putnam  were  chosen 
major-generals,  and  eight  others  received  appointments  as 
brigadiers.  Bills  of  credit  to  the  amount  of  three  million 
dollars  were  ordered,  to  provide  for  the  expenses  of  the  war. 

In  Virginia,  the  royal  governor,  Lord  Dunmore,  after  a 
lengthened  dispute  with  the  people,  was  obliged  to  seek  refuge 
on  board  a  man-of-war.  The  governors  of  North  and  South 
Carolina  retired  in  the  same  manner,  and  by  the  end  of 
the  year  all  the  old  governments  of  the  provinces  were  dis 
solved.  Dunmore  landed  several  times  upon  the  Virginia 
coast,  seeking  to  regain  possession  of  his  province;  but  being 

26 


302  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1776 

pressed  for  want  of  provisions,  and  the  militia  at  Norfolk  re 
fusing  to  comply  with  his  demand,  he  destroyed  the  town  by 
fire  and  departed  for  the  West  Indies. 

Fearing  an  attack  of  the  British  from  Canada,  of  which  prov 
ince  SIR  GUY  CARLETON  was  governor,  Congress  despatched 
two  expeditions  in  that  direction  ;  one  under  Generals  Schuyler 
and  Montgomery,  by  way  of  Lake  Champlain,  and  the  other 
under  Colonel  Arnold,  by  the  route  of  the  Kennebec.  Mon 
treal  was  taken  by  the  force  under  Montgomery  (Schuyler 
himself  being  ill),  but  Arnold  having  been  delayed,  and  his 
men  much  exhausted  by  their  toilsome  march  through  the 
tangled  forests  of  Maine,  did  not  join  the  force  before  Quebec 
until  late  in  the  autumn.  Their  combined,  but  desperate, 
assault  upon  the  strongly-fortified  city  was  repelled.  Four 
hundred  of  the  Americans  were  killed  and  wounded,  Mont 
gomery  being  numbered  with  the  slain.  Canada,  in  a  few 
months,  was  entirely  evacuated  by  the  Americans. 

The  English  parliament,  toward  the  close  of  the  first  year 
of  the  war,  passed  an  act  prohibiting  all  trade  and  commerce 
with  the  colonies,  and  authorizing  the  capture  of  the  trading- 
vessels  of  the  latter  found  on  the  high  seas.  Treaties  were 
likewise  entered  into  with  the  Landgrave  of  Hesse  Cassel  and 
the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  who  agreed  to  furnish,  for  pay,  16,000 
of  their  subjects  to  aid  the  army  of  Britain  in  its  work  of  sub 
jugation.  But  the  petition  of  Congress  to  the  king,  brought 
over  by  Richard  Penn  and  Henry  Lee,  was  refused  a  hearing 
by  parliament,  upon  the  ground  that  that  Congress  was  an 
unlawful  assembly. 


1776.     THE   SIEGES  OF   BOSTON,  CHARLESTON,  AND   NEW   YORK. 
DECLARATION  OF  INDEPENDENCE. 

Washington,  upon  receiving  his  appointment  as  commander- 
in-chief,  repaired  at  once  to  the  army  besieging  Boston.     In 


1776]  SIEGE    OF  CHARLESTON.  303 

consequence  of  the  lack  of  supplies  and  the  departure  of  many 
of  the  militia  whose  terms  of  enlistment  had  expired,  he 
did  not  make  any  attack  upon  the  city  until  the  3d  month 
(March),  1776,  when  he  ordered  a  redoubt  to  be  constructed 
on  Dorchester  Heights,  which  menaced  not  only  the  soldiers 
in  the  town,  but  the  ships  in  the  harbor.  Sir  William  Howe, 
the  successor  of  Gage,  perceiving  that  it  would  be  now 
necessary  to  dislodge  the  besiegers  or  to  evacuate  the  city, 
essayed  the  former ;  but,  being  defeated  in  his  design  by  a 
tempest  of  wind  and  rain,  he  embarked  with  all  his  troops  for 
Halifax,  and  nearly  at  the  same  time  Washington  and  his 
army  entered. 

To  effect  the  conquest  of  the  southern  colonies,  a  British 
fleet  under  Sir  Peter  Parker  appeared,  early  in  the  summer, 
before  the  harbor  of  Charleston.  Upon  Sullivan's  island,  at 
the  entrance  of  the  port,  a  fort  of  sand  and  palmetto-logs  had 
been  constructed,  and  its  defence  intrusted  to  Colonel  Moul- 
trie.  The  balls  from  the  cannon  of  the  British  fleet  readily 
penetrated  in  part  the  yielding  palmetto-wood,  but  failed  to 
shatter  it,  while  on  the  other  hand  the  fire  from  the  fort  was 
severely  felt  by  the  assailants.  In  the  night  the  British  com 
mander,  relinquishing  his  design,  drew  off  his  vessels,  and  as 
his  co-operation  was  required  by  the  other  fleet,  which  was 
operating  against  New  York,  he  soon  sailed  toward  that  port. 
Washington,  foreseeing  that  the  British  would  make  an  early 
effort  to  possess  themselves  of  a  place  so  important  to  their 
success  as  was  New  York,  had  ordered  the  construction  of 
works  of  defence,  and  leaving  Boston  soon  after  the  British 
evacuation,  established  his  headquarters  in  the  former  city. 

A  highly  important  event  was  about  to  transpire  in  the 
Congress,  then  in  session  at  Philadelphia.  The  hostile  meas 
ures  which  had  taken  place  had  produced  a  very  general  desire 
in  the  colonies  to  renounce  allegiance  to  the  mother  country. 
This  feeling  was  accelerated  by  a  pamphlet  written  by  Thomas 


304  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1776 

Paine,  under  the  signature  of  "Common  Sense,"  which  was 
designed  to  show  the  necessity  of  a  state  of  independence  to 
the  well  being  of  the  country.  By  RICHARD  HENRY  LEE,  of 
Virginia,  a  motion  was  made  in  Congress  for  declaring  the 
colonies  "  free  and  independent."  A  committee,  consisting 
of  Jefferson,  Franklin,  Sherman,  Adams  and  Livingston,  was 
appointed  to  prepare  a  Declaration  of  Independence.  The 
document  was  accordingly  drafted  with  great  care,  and  the 
important  resolutions  being  fully  discussed,  were  adopted  the 
fourth  day  of  the  yth  month  (July),  1776.  By  another  com 
mittee,  Articles  of  Confederation  were  prepared,  but  they 
were  not 'adopted  until  the  following  year.  They  conferred 
upon  the  nation  the  title  of  "  United  States  of  America,"  and 
were  duly  ratified  by  the  governments  of  the  several  states. 

It  was  the  aim  of  the  British  commanders,  by  obtaining 
possession  of  New  York,  to  control  the  line  of  the  Hudson 
river  and  Lake  Champlain,  and  thus  cut  off  New  England  from 
the  south.  The  troops  from  Halifax  under  General  Howe, 
and  those  from  England  under  Admiral  Howe,  landed  on 
Staten  Island ;  and  these,  together  with  Hessians,  and  the 
forces  which  had  besieged  Charleston,  constituted  an  army  of 
about  30,000  men,  being  considerably  in  excess  of  that  of  the 
Americans.  At  this  juncture,  Lord  Howe  issued  a  proclama 
tion  offering  pardon  to  those  who  would  return  to  their  alle 
giance,  and  endeavor  to  restore  peace ;  but  the  Americans, 
now  aiming  at  independence,  refused  to  entertain  any  offers 
of  reconciliation. 

In  the  8th  month  (August),  a  large  force  of  British  troops 
landed  on  the  west  end  of  Long  Island,  in  the  neighborhood 
of  Gravesend,  and  attacking  the  American  army  which  was 
commanded  by  Putnam  and  Sullivan,  defeated  them  with 
great  loss.  Washington  then  ordered  Brooklyn  to  be  evac 
uated,  and,  removing  also  from  New  York,  occupied  Harlem 
Heights  in  the  upper  part  of  Manhattan  island.  General 


1776]      BATTLES   OF   TRENTON  AND   PRINCETON.      305 

Howe  now  made  further  overtures  of  amity,  and  appointed 
commissioners  to  meet  on  Staten  Island  the  three  appointed 
by  the  Americans,  to  wit,  Franklin,  Rutledge  and  Hancock; 
but  as  these  refused  to  treat  upon  any  other  basis  than  the  ac 
knowledgment  of  American  independence,  there  was  nothing 
effected.  Later  in  the  year  Congress  commissioned  Franklin, 
Silas  Dean  and  Arthur  Lee  to  proceed  to  the  French  court 
and  procure  aid  in  money,  arms  and  ammunition,  as  well 
as  a  recognition  of  the  independence  of  the  United  States. 

Leaving  General  GREENE  in  command  of  Forts  Washington 
and  Lee,  which  were  on  opposite  sides  of  the  Hudson  a  few- 
miles  above  New  York,  Washington  withdrew  a  little  to  the 
eastward  to  the  highlands  of  White  Plains,  where  he  hoped  to 
hold  possession  of  an  important  road.  But  General  Howe 
advancing,  compelled  his  retreat,  and,  a  little  later,  succeeded 
in  capturing  both  of  the  Hudson  forts.  About  2000  Americans 
were  taken  at  the  surrender  of  Fort  Washington, — the  loss  in 
killed  and  wounded  being  large  on  both  sides.  Washington 
with  the  remnant  of  his  army  then  retreated  to  Newark,  and 
through  New  Jersey  to  Trenton,  whence  he  escaped  across  the 
Delaware  to  the  Pennsylvania  shore,  just  as  the  pursuing  army 
under  CORNWALLIS  came  in  sight. 

Howe  stationed  detachments  of  his  army  at  Trenton  and 
Princeton,  and  withdrew  for  the  winter  to  New  York,  having 
no  apprehension  of  any  attack  by  the  Americans  unless  the 
river  should  be  frozen.  Without  waiting  for  that  to  occur, 
Washington  determined,  as  the  enlistments  of  many  of  his 
men  would  expire  with  the  end  of  the  year,  to  make  further 
immediate  use  of  their  services,  by  re-crossing  the  Delaware  in 
boats.  The  Hessians  at  Trenton  were  taken  by  surprise,  and 
many  made  prisoners.  The  commander-in-chief  followed  up 
his  success  by  an  attack  on  the  British  troops  at  Princeton,  sev 
eral  hundred  of  whom  were  captured,  and  the  rest  put  to  flight; 
after  which  he  retired  into  winter-quarters  at  Morristown. 

26* 


306  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1777 


1777.      BURGOYNE'S     SURRENDER.       PHILADELPHIA     CAPTURED 
BY    THE    BRITISH. 

To  effect  a  junction  with  the  British  forces  at  New  York, 
and  to  occupy  the  line  of  the  Hudson  in  accordance  with  the 
pre-arranged  plan,  Burgoyne,  with  7000  British  and  Hes 
sians,  beside  Canadian  and  Indian  auxiliaries,  passed  up  Lake 
Champlain  and  laid  siege  to  Ticonderoga.  Finding  that  the 
fortress  could  not  be  held,  the  Americans  under  General  St. 
Clair  abandoned  the  place ;  but  the  escaping  garrison  was 
pursued  and  defeated  by  a  body  of  the  invaders,  while  a  large 
part  of  the  stores  which  had  been  sent  in  bateaux  to  White 
hall,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  lake,  also  fell  into  their 
hands.  Burgoyne  then  passed  on  to  Fort  Edward,  a  little 
below  where  the  Hudson  bends  from  the  west  to  pursue  its 
general  southward  course. 

While  at  Fort  Edward,  Burgoyne  being  in  great  need  of 
provisions,  and  hearing  that  a  large  quantity  of  these  necessa 
ries  were  stored  at  Bennington,  forty  miles  distant,  despatched 
Colonel  Baum,  with  five  hundred  men,  to  secure  them.  But 
the  foragers  were  met  and  repulsed  by  the  American  militia 
under  General  Stark,  who  also  defeated  a  second  detachment 
which  was  sent  to  the  relief  of  the  first.  Burgoyne  with  his 
army,  leaving  Fort  Edward,  crossed  the  Hudson  and  advanced 
to  Saratoga;  while  the  Americans  under  General  HORATIO 
GATES,  encamped  at  Stillwater  in  the  vicinity.  KOSCIUSKO, 
a  noted  Polish  officer,  was  in  the  American  service  as  chief 
engineer. 

On  the  i Qth  day  of  Qth  month  (September)  an  obstinate, 
but  indecisive,  engagement  between  the  two  armies  occurred 
near  Stillwater.  This  was  followed  by  a  number  of  skirmishes, 
until  on  the  7th  day  of  loth  month  a  general  battle  was  fought 
at  Saratoga.  Burgoyne,  finding  that  his  army,  hemmed  in  by 
superior  numbers,  was  being  overpowered  ;  that  his  provisions 


1777]  PHILADELPHIA    CAPTURED.  307 

had  failed,  while  his  troops  were  worn  out  by  fatigue,  was 
finally  compelled  to  capitulate.  On  the  iyth  of  the  month 
his  whole  army  surrendered  as  prisoners  of  war  to  General 
Gates.  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  meanwhile,  with  the  forces  from 
New  York,  had  captured  Forts  Clinton  and  Montgomery, 
near  West  Point ;  but  hearing  of  Burgoyne's  surrender,  he 
hastily  dismantled  the  forts  and  went  back  to  New  York. 

While  these  operations  were  transpiring  in  the  north,  the 
army  of  General  Howe  and  Admiral  Howe,  16,000  in  number, 
sailed  from  Sandy  Hook  for  the  Chesapeake,  and  ascending 
to  Elk  river,  at  the  head  of  the  bay,  disembarked,  and  began 
their  march  toward  Philadelphia.  To  stay  their  progress, 
Washington  posted  his  army  on  the  rising  ground  above 
Chad's-ford  of  the  Brandywine.  The  British,  however, 
forced  a  passage,  and  having  thrown  the  Americans  into  con 
fusion,  caused  their  defeat  after  a  bloody  struggle.  A  young 
French  officer,  the  MARQUIS  DE  LAFAYETTE,  who  had  left  his 
country  to  aid  the  American  cause,  was  wounded  in  the  battle. 
COUNT  PULASKI,  a  Pole,  who  had  come  over  with  the  same 
object  as  Lafayette,  was  also  present. 

Immediately  after  the  battle  of  Brandywine,  General  Howe 
took  possession  of  Philadelphia  (gth  month  26th),  although 
the  principal  part  of  his  army  was  encamped  at  Germantown, 
several  miles  north  of  the  capital.  Washington,  thinking 
that  he  would  be  able  to  overpower  the  British  at  German- 
town,  made  an  attack,  at  dawn  of  loth  month  (October)  4th. 
The  British  were  thrown  into  disorder  by  the  unexpected  on 
slaught,  but  a  fog  coming  on,  they  had  time  to  recover  from 
the  first  attack,  and  eventually  drove  the  Americans  from  the 
field.  The  latter  retired  into  winter-quarters  at  Valley  Forge, 
on  the  Schuylkill,  twenty  miles  from  the  city,  where  their 
sufferings  from  cold,  nakedness,  fever  and  other  diseases,  as 
well  as  from  poor  and  insufficient  diet,  were  deplorable  in 
the  extreme. 


308  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1778 


1778,    THE   FRENCH  ALLIANCE.     MASSACRE  OF  WYOMING. 

The  winter  preceding  the  campaign  of  1778  was  marked 
by  much  disaffection  in  the  army:  the  depreciation  of  the 
bills  of  credit  to  about  a  fourth  of  their  nominal  value, 
being  the  chief  cause  of  the  trouble.  Many  of  the  officers, 
after  expending  their  own  means  in  addition  to  their  pay, 
gave  in  their  resignations.  An  intrigue  was  also  set  on  foot 
by  Generals  Conway,  Gates  and  others,  to  force  General 
Washington  to  retire  from  the  chief  command;  but  that 
measure  being  opposed  to  the  popular  wish,  it  failed  of 
success.  Conway  was  superseded  by  BARON  STEUBEN,  a 
Prussian  officer,  who  had  recently  entered  the  American 
service.  In  the  meantime,  the  news  of  the  capture  of  Bur- 
goyne  having  arrived  in  Europe,  the  French  court,  impelled 
by  rivalry  of  England,  agreed  to  acknowledge  the  independ 
ence  of  the  United  States,  and  also  entered  into  an  alli 
ance  to  afford  them  aid  in  carrying  on  the  war.  Benjamin 
Franklin,  the  most  influential  of  the  three  American  com 
missioners,  was  appointed  by  Congress  minister  to  the  French 
court. 

A  fleet  of  1 8  large  war  vessels  commanded  by  the  Count 
D'Estaing,was  sent  over  by  the  French  government,  and  arrived 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Delaware  early  in  the  summer.  But  the 
design  of  the  French  commander  to  blockade  the  British  in 
Philadelphia,  was  frustrated  by  their  evacuating  the  city. 
Washington's  army,  starting  in  pursuit,  intercepted  them  on 
their  way  across  New  Jersey,  at  Monmouth  Court-House,  and 
an  indecisive  battle  ensued  on  a  day — 6th  month  (June)  28th 
— memorable  for  its  excessive  heat,  and  the  consequent  terri 
ble  suffering  of  the  combatants.  The  British  troops  con 
tinued  their  retreat  to  New  York,  to  which  port  the  French 
fleet  also  sailed.  The  vessels  of  the  latter,  however,  being 


1778]  MASSACRE    OF  WYOMING.  309 

of  too  great  draught  to  enter  the  harbor,  they  were  ordered  to 
Newport. 

General  Sullivan,  at  the  same  time,  was  sent  with  a  large 
army  to  effect  the  capture  of  the  British  forces  on  Rhode 
Island;  but  the  French  admiral  failing  to  co-operate,  the 
American  general  with  difficulty  withdrew  his  army.  D'Estaing 
sailed  to  Boston  and  then  to  the  West  Indies.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  year,  Sir  Henry  Clinton  sent  a  fleet  against  Savan 
nah,  and,  as  the  place  was  unprepared  for  defence,  it  soon 
yielded.  Clinton  also  took  measures  to  retaliate  on  the 
Americans  for  their  depredations  upon  the  British  merchant 
shipping ;  not  less  than  500  trading  vessels  having  been  cap 
tured  by  them  within  two  years.  In  Buzzard's  bay  and  its 
vicinity,  where  the  American  privateers  resorted,  Gray,  the 
British  general,  destroyed  sixty  large  vessels,  besides  smaller 
craft;  and  thence  proceeding  to  New  Bedford  and  Fair 
Haven,  executed  similar  destructive  work  upon  the  mills  and 
other  property  at  those  places. 

The  confederacy  of  the  Six  Nations  having  been  induced 
in  the  preceding  year  to  enter  the  British  service,  their  ma 
rauding  parties  had  committed  extensive  depredations,  prin 
cipally  within  the  borders  of  the  state  of  New  York.  They 
had  also  been  largely  employed  in  the  army  of  Burgoyne. 
A  chief  of  the  Mohawks,  named  Brandt,  received  a  colonel's 
commission  in  the  British  service,  and  made  himself  notorious 
by  his  numerous  deeds  of  devastation  and  bloodshed.  In 
the  summer  of  1778,  a  band  of  the  Seneca  tribe,  with  British 
troops  and  tories,  under  a  leader  named  John  Butler,  de 
scended  the  Susquehanna  and  destroyed  the  settlements  in 
the  Wyoming  valley.  The  able-bodied  inhabitants  were 
principally  absent  in  the  army,  but  a  company  of  above 
four  hundred,  principally  old  men  and  boys,  was  mustered  ; 
the  women  and  children  being  placed  within  a  stockade 
fort. 


310  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1778 

Unable  to  withstand  the  fierce  attack  of  the  allied  band, 
many  of  the  Americans  yielded  themselves  prisoners, — the 
rest  sought  safety  in  flight ;  but  in  either  case  all  who  were 
captured  were  destined  to  be  massacred.  Sixteen  of  the  cap 
tives  were  placed  in  a  ring  around  a  rock,  and  each  being 
held  by  a  stout  Indian,  they  were  one  by  one  tomahawked. 
Nine  persons  in  another  ring  were  murdered  in  the  same  way. 
But  the  whites  were  no  less  sanguinary  than  the  Indians,  for 
party-spirit  ran  high  in  the  valley,  and  men  of  the  same 
household  were  arrayed  in  hateful  strife  against  each  other. 
One  who  was  attacked  by  his  own  brother,  fell  upon  his  knees 
beseeching  his  assailant  that  if  he  would  spare  his  life  he 
would  serve  him  as  his  slave  forever;  but  the  unnatural 
brother  refused  the  cry  for  mercy,  and  muttering  an  oath, 
shot  him  dead  !  What  a  brutal  method  for  determining  the 
right  or  justice  of  any  cause  is  War  !  As  the  student  follows 
in  the  devastating  track  of  its  chariot  wheels,  how  appalling 
grows  the  recital  of  the  deeds  of  pillage  and  blood — how 
hideous  the  features  of  hate  and  cursing  and  every  crime 
which  are  hidden  by  the  mask  of  glory,  and  of  patriotism, 
falsely  so  called  ! 

Several  of  the  few  survivors  of  the  fight,  panting  and  bloody, 
rushed  into  the  fort  where  the  terrified  women  and  children 
waited,  trembling  for  the  issue.  Fearful  of  encountering  the 
same  fate  as  the  soldiers,  these  widows  and  orphans  hurried  to 
the  mountains,  and  beyond  to  the  Delaware,  and  finally,  after 
much  suffering  reached  their  former  homes  in  Connecticut. 
And  for  days  afterward,  other  companies  of  sorrow-stricken 
fugitives,  leaving  their  smoking  and  ruined  homesteads  in  the 
pleasant  valley,  crossed  that  weary  wilderness  of  the  Pokono 
mountains  which  is  known  as  the  "  Shades  of  Death,"  and 
at  Stroudsburg  found  rest  and  safety. 


1779]  GEORGIA    CAMPAIGN.  $tt 

1779-     GEORGIA  CAMPAIGN.     DEEDS  OF  REPRISAL. 

The  British,  being  in  possession  of  Savannah,  were  not  long 
in  quelling  throughout  the  state  of  Georgia,  the  remnant  of 
opposition  to  their  authority.  As  they  believed  that  a  large 
proportion  of  the  people  of  Carolina  were  royalists  at  heart, 
emissaries  were  sent  out  to  prevail  on  the  Tories  to  join  the 
royal  standard;  and,  to  make  this  co-operation  easier,  the 
British  army  under  General  Prevost  was  ordered  to  move  up 
the  Savannah  river  to  Augusta.  Thus  emboldened,  the  Tories 
appeared  in  considerable  numbers ;  the  Indians  also,  joining 
with  the  royalists,  there  ensued  the  harrowing  barbarities 
of  partisan  warfare.  General  LINCOLN,  the  American  com 
mander,  after  failing  in  his  attempts  to  regain  upper  Georgia 
from  the  British,  and  fearing  lest  Charleston  also  would  fall 
into  their  hands,  entreated  the  Count  D'Estaing  to  render  aid 
with  his  fleet. 

D'Estaing,  who  in  the  meantime  had  been  depredating  upon 
England's  West  India  possessions,  responded  to  the  call,  and 
appeared  with  his  vessels  in  the  harbor  of  Savannah,  while 
Lincoln  brought  up  the  land  forces.  The  British  refusing  to 
surrender,  batteries  were  thrown  up  and  armed  with  cannon 
and  mortars.  Perceiving,  however,  that  the  cannonading  was 
distressing  the  inhabitants  more  than  their  foes,  the  American 
and  French  forces  united,  and,  on  the  qih  day  of  roth  month 
(October)  made  an  attempt  to  capture  the  place  by  assault. 
The  undertaking  was  repelled,  with  great  loss  to  the  allies. 
D'Estaing  was  wounded  and  Count  Pulaski  was  killed.  Lin 
coln's  army  retreated,  and  the  French  fleet  sailed  for  home. 

In  other  quarters  the  English  cause  was  likewise  successful. 
A  naval  expedition  under  Sir  George  Collier  and  General 
Matthews,  sailed  into. Hampton  Roads  and  devastated  Ports 
mouth  and  the  other  towns  on  or  near  the  Elizabeth  river. 
Large  quantities  of-provisions  intended  for  the  American  army 


3i2  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1779 

were  seized,  and  the  shipping  was  either  destroyed  or  removed. 
Verplanck's  and  Stony  Points,  below  West  Point  on  the  Hud 
son,  important  by  reason  of  their  commanding  King's  Ferry, 
fell  into  Clinton's  hands.  Stony  Point  was  re-captured  by  a 
force  of  Americans  under  General  ANTHONY  WAYNE,  but  it 
was  soon  again  in  British  possession. 

To  retaliate  the  second  time  on  the  American  privateers, 
and  especially  on  those  of  Connecticut,  which  had  nearly  de 
stroyed  British  commerce  on  Long  Island  Sound,  General 
Tryon,  instructed  by  Clinton,  proceeded  to  New  Haven,  and 
burnt  the  shipping  in  that  port.  Fairfield,  Norwalk  and 
Greenwich,  on  the  sound,  also  received  the  hostile  visitation 
of  fire. 

The  expedition  of  General  Tryon  was  bitterly  complained 
of  by  the  Americans  because  of  its  ruthless  destruction  of 
private  property.  Yet  the  sway  of  the  sword  is  naught  else  but 
barbarous  and  cruel :  all  its  methods  are  revengeful,  and  it 
can  only  thrive  as  the  wicked  spirit  of  retaliation  is  aroused. 
"  An  eye  for  an  eye,  and  a  tooth  for  a  tooth,"  is  its  motto. 
Thus  it  was  in  retaliation  for  the  massacre  of  Wyoming,  and 
other  less  notable  Indian  enormities,  that  General  Sullivan 
was  sent  in  the  summer  of  1779  to  invade  the  country  of  the 
Six  Nations.  Forty  of  their  villages  upon  the  Tioga  and  Gen- 
esee  rivers  were  laid  waste,  and  all  their  corn  and  fruit  trees 
destroyed.  The  Indians,  however,  mostly  escaped,  and  during 
the  remainder  of  the  war  hovered  in  small  and  scattered  bands 
upon  the  frontier  settlements,  where,  with  torch  and  tomahawk 
they  wreaked  their  revenge,  and  at  the  same  time  earned  their 
pay  as  British  allies. 

Perhaps  the  most  awful  engagement  of  the  war,  because  of 
the  reckless  sacrifice  of  human  life  involved,  was  the  naval  en 
counter  on  the  coast  of  Scotland  between  a  squadron  of  five 
American  vessels,  commanded  by  John  Paul  Jones,  and  two 
British  frigates,  under  Captain  Pearson,  acting  as  convoy  to 


1780]  THE   BRITISH  IN  SOUTH  CAROLINA.  313 

a  merchant  fleet  from  the  Baltic.  The  American  commander 
ran  his  vessel,  the  Bon-Homme  Richard,  so  close  to  the 
frigate  Serapis,  that  the  muzzles  of  the  hostile  cannon  came 
in  contact.  In  this  position,  the  malignant  combatants  using 
their  muskets  and  pikes,  fought  ferociously  for  the  space  of 
three  hours,  until  both  vessels  were  badly  shattered  and  on 
fire.  The  magazine  of  the  Serapis  having  exploded,  Pearson 
surrendered.  But  it  was  a  dreadful  victory  for  the  Americans : 
of  375  men  who  were  on  board  the  Bon-Homme  Richard,  300 
were  either  killed  or  wounded. 

1780.     THE    BRITISH    IN    SOUTH    CAROLINA.      ARNOLD    AND 
ANDRE. 

The  military  operations  of  1780  were  most  active  in  the 
Carolinas,  where  Sir  Henry  Clinton,  after  remaining  a  short 
time  in  the  vicinity  of  Savannah,  began,  in  the  spring,  the 
siege  of  Charleston.  General  Lincoln  and  Governor  Rutledge 
commanded  the  garrison  in  the  city.  At  Monk's  Corner, 
Ninety-Six  and  other  places,  detachments  of  the  American 
army  were  defeated  by  the  British,  of  whom  Colonel  Tarleton, 
with  his  cavalry,  was  the  most  active  and  relentless.  Charles 
ton  being  completely  surrounded,  Lincoln  was  obliged  to  ca 
pitulate.  Many  of  the  inhabitants  declared  their  allegiance 
to  the  British  cause ;  and  as  South  Carolina  now  appeared  re 
claimed  to  the  Crown,  Clinton,  leaving  Lords  Cornwallis  and 
Rawdon  in  command,  returned  to  New  York. 

General  Gates,  with  reinforcements  of  militia  from  the 
Southern  states,  advanced  toward  the  English  forces,  which, 
with  the  intention  of  invading  North  Carolina,  had  been 
posted  at  Cainden.  Very  early  in  the  morning  of  8th  month 
(August)  1 6th,  the  advance  guards  of  the  opposing  armies  met, 
each  of  them  being  on  the  way  to  surprise  the  camp  of  the 
other.  The  American  militia  recoiled  before  the  British 
o  27 


3I4  HISTORY  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  [1780 

regulars,  and  fled  in  great  disorder.  They  were  pursued  for 
a  distance  of  over  twenty  miles;  losing  about  2000  men  in 
killed,  wounded  and  prisoners.  Among  the  killed  was  the 
BARON  DE  KALB,  a  Prussian  in  the  American  service.  Gen 
eral  Gates  retired  into  North  Carolina,  leaving  Colonels 
Sumter  and  Marion,  who  commanded  local  troops  of  cavalry, 
to  maintain  a  desultory  warfare  with  the  British  and  their 
tory  allies.  Cornwallis  also  advanced  across  the  frontier  to 
Charlotte,  but  a  portion  of  his  army  under  Colonel  Ferguson, 
having  been  decisively  repulsed  at  a  woody  eminence  called 
King's  Mountain,  the  British  retired  again  into  South  Caro 
lina. 

About  midsummer,  6000  French  auxiliaries,  under  the  com 
mand  of  the  COUNT  DE  ROCHAMBEAU,  arrived  at  Rhode  Island, 
where  the  troops  were  disembarked,  and  the  armed  vessels 
which  brought  them  returned  to  France. 

An  event  occurred  in  the  autumn  of  1780,  which  caused  a 
profound  sensation  throughout  the  country.  When  General 
Arnold,  who  was  wounded  at  the  battle  of  Saratoga,  was 
obliged  to  retire  from  active  service,  he  obtained  from  Con 
gress  the  position  of  commandant  at  Philadelphia.  Being  of 
an  extravagant  disposition,  and  living  in  a  style  of  princely 
display  far  beyond  his  means,  he  was  finally  led  into  the  dis 
honest  practice  of  embezzling  the  public  moneys.  For  this 
offence  he  was  tried  by  a  court-martial  and  sentenced  to  receive 
a  reprimand  from  Washington.  In  revenge  for  this  humilia 
tion,  and  to  obtain  the  money  which  he  coveted,  Arnold  en 
tered  into  correspondence  with  Sir  Henry  Clinton.  It  resulted 
in  an  agreement  to  deliver  West  Point  (to  the  command  of 
which  place  he  had  been  recently  appointed)  into  the  hands 
of  the  English,  and  at  the  same  time  to  join  the  royal  army. 

For  the  purpose  of  arranging  the  details  of  the  treacherous 
barter,  JClinton  sent  an  aid-de-camp,  the  young  and  talented 
Major  Andre,  to  meet  Arnold  by  night,  some  distance  below 


1781]  REVOLT  IN  THE  AMERICAN  ARMY.  3^ 

West  Point.  Daylight  dawned  before  the  secret  interview- 
ended,  and  as  the  vessel  in  which  Andre  had  come  had  drifted 
down  the  river,  he  was  obliged  to  return  by  land.  Near 
Tarrytown  he  was  met  by  three  of  the  American  militia, 
whose  suspicions  being  aroused,  they  searched  their  captive, 
and  found,  concealed  in  his  boots,  the  papers  which  proved 
the  treason  of  Arnold.  Unmindful  of  Andre's  entreaties  and 
of  the  tempting  bribes  which  he  offered  for  his  release,  the 
three  soldiers  delivered  him  to  the  commanding  officer  at 
Peekskill. 

Sir  Henry  Clinton  and  others  were  unremitting  in  their 
endeavors  to  procure  the  release  of  Andre ;  but  Washington, 
acting  in  accordance  with  the  usages  of  war,  referred  his  case 
to  a  court-martial.  The  captive  being  sentenced  to  suffer 
death,  was  accordingly  hung.  Arnold  managed  to  escape, 
and  received  at  British  hands  a  guilty  reward  of  ^10,000 
and  the  rank  of  brigadier-general.  The  nature  of  the  services 
rendered  against  his  country  is  briefly  alluded  to  in  the  next 
section. 


1781—1783.     CORNWALLIS    SURRENDERS    AT    YORKTOWN. 
PEACE    DECLARED. 

The  new  year  opened  with  a  serious  revolt  in  the  army,  the 
whole  body  of  Pennsylvania  militia  refusing  to  serve  any 
longer.  They  complained  that  their  term  of  service  properly 
expired  at  the  close  of  the  preceding  year,  and  also  that  they 
were  suffering  greatly  from  lack  of  clothing.  But  as  the  gov 
ernment  maintained  that  they  must  continue  to  serve  while 
the  war  lasted,  the  soldiers  seized  their  arms  and  began  their 
march  toward  Philadelphia  for  the  purpose  of  demanding  jus 
tice  in  the  halls  of  Congress.  Clinton  endeavored  to  persuade 
the  insurgents  to  enter  the  British  service,  an  offer  which  they 
quickly  declined.  At  Princeton  they  were  met  by  Generals 


316  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1781 

Reed  and  Wayne,  who  had  been  appointed  by  Congress  to 
investigate  the  state  of  affairs,  and  to  restore  tranquillity. 
The  soldiers  finally  agreed  not  to  disband,  upon  condition 
that  they  should  receive  the  necessary  supplies  of  clothing, 
their  arrearages  of  pay,  and  re-imbursement  for  losses  in  con 
sequence  of  the  depreciation  of  paper  money. 

At  this  time  ROBERT  MORRIS,  of  Philadelphia,  a  man  of 
large  pecuniary  means,  was  appointed  treasurer  of  the  United 
States.  It  was  through  his  knowledge  of  financial  concerns ; 
by  the  free  use  of  his  own  private  resources ;  and  by  the  es 
tablishment  of  the  national  "Bank  of  North  America,"  that 
the  government  credit  exhibited  an  improvement.  France 
and  Holland  also  made  large  loans  to  the  republic.  But 
the  Continental  money,  which  had  been  issued  to  carry  on 
the  war,  and  which  it  was  an  almost  treasonable  offence  to 
refuse,  had  become  nearly  worthless, — five  dollars  of  such 
scarcely  sufficing  to  purchase  five  pennies'  worth  (sterling 
value)  of  produce. 

In  the  south,  General  Greene  had  been  appointed  Gates' 
successor.  A  part  of  his  troops,  under  Colonel  Morgan,  were 
attacked  by  Tarleton's  cavalry  at  a  place  called  the  Cow- 
pens  ;  but  the  assailants  were  repelled  with  loss.  Cornwallis 
then  started  in  pursuit  of  Morgan's  detachment,  but  the  latter 
passed  the  fords  of  the  Catawba,  the  Yadkin  and  the  Dan, 
just  in  advance  of  his  pursuers.  Being  joined  by  Greene's 
main  army,  a  battle  was  fought,  on  the  15th  day  of  3d  month 
(March),  at  Guilford  Court-House,  in  which  the  British  had  the 
advantage.  Cornwallis  marched  into  Virginia,  while  Greene, 
retiring  southward,  attacked  Rawdon's  forces  at  Hobkirk's 
Hill,  near  Camden,  but  was  defeated  in  the  attempt  to  dis 
lodge  the  British  commander.  Numerous  skirmishes,  mostly 
of  a  partisan  character,  ensued,  until  finally  there  occurred  a 
severe  engagement  at  Eutaw  Springs,  when  the  British  having 
lost  all  their  military  posts  retired  to  Charleston. 


1781]  CORNWALLIS  SURRENDERS.  317 

Very  early  in  the  year,  General  Arnold  had  landed  a  force 
of  British  troops  in  the  vicinity  of  Richmond,  and  destroyed 
the  public  stores  there,  besides  committing  various  wanton 
acts  of  depreciation  upon  private  property.  Clinton  sent 
an  additional  army  under  General  Phillips,  to  aid  Arnold  in 
his  destructive  work,  and  to  effect  a  junction  with  the  army 
of  Cornwallis.  The  increased  force  of  the  latter  began  its 
march  toward  the  interior  of  Virginia,  somewhat  harassed  by 
the  troops  of  Lafayette ;  but  receiving  orders  from  Clinton, 
they  retreated  toward  the  coast.  At  Yorktown,  upon  the 
north  side  of  the  York-and-James  rivers  peninsula,  Cornwal 
lis  strongly  intrenched  himself,  relying  for  assistance  upon 
Clinton  or  the  British  admiral,  if  such  aid  should  be  needed. 

Meanwhile,  Washington  ordered  the  French  army  of  Count 
Rochambeau  to  leave  Rhode  Island  and  join  the  army  of 
Lafayette,  the  junction  being  formed  at  Williamsburg,  close 
to  Yorktown.  The  allies  then  numbered  16,000  men.  The 
large  French  fleet  of  the  Count  de  Grasse  likewise  arrived  in 
the  Chesapeake,  after  a  slight  but  successful  engagement  with 
the  British  fleet  of  Admiral  Graves.  Batteries  were  con 
structed  by  the  Americans,  and  cannonading  commenced. 
Cornwallis,  with  an  army  not  half  as  large  as  that  of  the  allies, 
being  defeated  in  several  sorties,  and  failing  in  an  attempt  to 
withdraw  his  forces,  finally  agreed  to  terms  of  capitulation. 
On  the  i Qth  day  of  the  loth  month  (October),  1781,  his 
army  of  over  7000  men,  together  with  all  the  military  stores, 
were  surrendered  to  the  Americans ;  the  shipping  and  their 
crews  being  given  up  to  the  French  five  days  later.  Clinton, 
with  heavy  reinforcements,  arrived  off  the  capes  of  Virginia, 
but  being  apprised  of  the  surrender  of  Cornwallis,  he  sailed 
back  to  New  York  without  delay. 

The  serious  reverse  to  the  British  cause  experienced  at 
Yorktown,  caused  an  abrupt  cessation  of  hostilities.  Unwil 
ling  to  be  taxed  any  longer  for  the  prosecution  of  so  expensive 

27* 


318  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1783 

a  contest,  the  people  of  England  demanded  that  peace  should 
be  made.  The  king,  although  very  reluctant  to  renounce  all 
hope  of  re-possessing  the  American  colonies,  could  not  pre 
vent  the  organization  of  a  new  cabinet  favorable  to  peace. 
As  a  first  conciliatory  step,  Sir  Guy  Carleton,  governor  of 
Canada,  a  man  popular  with  the  Americans,  was  appointed  to 
supersede  Clinton  at  New  York. 

Early  in  1783  preliminary  articles  of  peace  were  agreed 
upon,  and  on  the  3d  day  of  the  pth  month  (September),  in 
the  same  year,  the  definitive  treaty  was  signed  at  VERSAILLES. 
The  United  States  were  represented  by  Dr.  Franklin,  John 
Adams,  John  Jay  and  Henry  Laurens. 

While  these  negotiations  were  pending,  the  stability  of  the 
young  republic  seemed  for  a  time  endangered  by  the  discon 
tent  and  machinations  prevalent  in  the  army.  The  officers 
had  been  promised  by  Congress  half-pay  for  life,  but,  aware 
of  the  low  condition  of  the  public  treasury,  they  became 
apprehensive  lest  the  stipulation  would  not  be  fulfilled,  nor 
even  their  accounts  for  arrearages  settled.  To  quiet  the  rising 
storm,  Washington  appointed  a  special  meeting  with  his 
officers  at  Newburg,  where  he  gave  them  assurances  that  he 
would  endeavor  by  all  the  means  in  his  power  to  secure  from 
Congress  the  right  adjustment  of  their  claims. 

Some  of  the  officers,  actuated  by  motives  of  ambition,  made 
a  secret  proposition  to  Washington  that  he  should  accept  the 
title  of  "king;"  but  that  doubtful  honor  he  promptly  and 
indignantly  declined.  News  of  the  signing  of  the  treaty  of 
peace  having  arrived,  the  British  army  evacuated  New  York ; 
and  immediately  thereafter,  Washington,  proceeding  to  An 
napolis  where  Congress  had  assembled  in  session,  resigned 
his  commission  as  commander-in-chief,  i2th  month  (Decem 
ber)  23,  1783.  He  then  retired  to  his  estate  of  Mount  Ver- 
non,  and  engaged  in  the  quiet  pursuits  of  agricultural  life. 


CHAPTER    XXIV. 

THE   CONSTITUTION   FORMED.     ADMINISTRATION   OF 
WASHINGTON. 

1784—1796. 


FINANCIAL    DEPRESSION.      SHAYS'    REBELLION 

THE  desire  of  our  Revolutionary  ancestors  to  be  free  from 
the  control  of  the  parent  country  was  a  sufficiently  laudable 
wish  in  itself,  yet  that  object  could  surely  have  been  peace 
ably  attained  at  a  mere  tithe  of  the  expense  which  the  war 
involved,  and  probably,  too,  without  any  loss  of  life  whatever. 
According  to  an  estimate  made  by  Congress  after  the  decla 
ration  of  peace,  it  appeared  that  the  war  had  cost  the  country 
about  135  million  dollars.  Not  only  were  the  government 
finances  in  a  deplorable  state,  but  a  burden  of  debt  encum 
bered  almost  every  corporation.  With  an  unreliable  paper 
currency,  trade  and  manufactures  were  necessarily  greatly 
depressed,  while  agriculture  had  been  very  much  neglected, 
consequent  upon  the  withdrawal  of  so  many  yeomen  to  serve 
in  the  army. 

England,  in  addition  to  the  loss  of  her  colonies,  incurred, 
as  a  result  of  her  folly,  a  debt  of  over  ^100,000,000,  and  the 
loss  of  50,000  men. 

But,  far  more  to  be  lamented  than  the  pecuniary  loss  and 
business  depression  which  followed  the  war,  was  the  in 
crease  of  vice  and  immorality,  the  inevitable  consequents  of 
every  period  of  strife.  The  lax  manners  and  mode  of  life  of 


3 20  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1784 

the  army  were  by  no  means  calculated  to  aid  the  virtue  or 
to  foster  the  industrious  habits  of  the  provincial  soldiers. 
Furthermore,  the  skeptical  opinions  held  by  many  of  the 
French  and  German  officers  had  been  widely  disseminated, 
and,  aided  by  sundry  infidel  publications,  had  weakened  and 
even  blasted  the  religious  belief  of  many  in  the  community. 
The  chief  of  these  pernicious  works  was  the  "Age  of  Reason," 
by  Thomas  Paine,  a  writer  who  had  acquired  great  popularity 
during  the  Revolution,  by  his  advocacy  of  the  American  cause 
in  his  pamphlet  entitled  "Common  Sense."  Subsequently, 
having  defended,  in  his  "Rights  of  Man,"  the  principles  of 
the  French  Revolution,  he  made  his  appearance  in  France, 
and  was  chosen  a  deputy  to  the  National  Convention  ;  but,  by 
the  influence  of  Robespierre,  whose  enmity  he  had  incurred, 
he  was  thrown  into  prison,  and,  while  there,  wrote  that  most 
mischievous  publication,  the  "Age  of  Reason." 

PAINE  came  back  to  America,  and  died  at  Greenwich  on  Long 
Island,  in  1809.  In  his  last  hours  he  found  that  reason  was,  after 
all,  but  a  poor  stay — a  broken  staff— to  lean  upon.  His  infidel 
friends,  too,  had  all  deserted  him.  Being  in  a  destitute  condition, 
very  ill  and  without  a  nurse,  he  was  visited  by  some  members  of  the 
Society  of  Friends  (among  whom  was  Stephen  Grellet)  who,  pitying 
his  lamentable  state,  supplied  him  with  an  attendant  and  ministered 
to  his  necessities.  Once,  some  of  his  deistical  comrades  came  to 
the  door  and  cried  out  in  a  loud  and  unfeeling  manner — "Tom 
Paine,  it  is  said  you  are  turning  Christian,  but  we  hope  you  will  die 
as  you  have  lived :"  upon  which,  turning  to  his  attendant,  he  said — 
"You  see  what  miserable  comforters  they  are."  At  another  time, 
when  the  nurse  told  him  that  she  had  once  begun  to  read  his  book, 
but  it  so  distressed  her  that  she  threw  it  into  the  fire,  he  remarked — 
"  I  wish  all  had  done  as  you,  for  if  the  devil  has  ever  had  any  agency 
in  any  work,  he  has  had  it  in  my  writing  that  book." 

Various  expedients  were  resorted  to  by  the  several  states,  to 
obtain  relief  from  the  financial  distress  and  embarrassment. 
The  farmers,  who  were  mostly  in  debt  to  the  merchants, 


1 786]  SHAY^S  REBELLION.  321 

favored  the  issuing  of  paper  money  by  the  states  in  a  manner 
similar  to  that  already  adopted  by  the  general  government. 
This  course  was  adopted  in  Rhode  Island,  but  resulted  in  a 
heavy  depreciation  of  the  bills  and  the  loss  of  public  credit. 
With  onerous  taxes  to  pay,  the  discontent  among  the  people 
became  wide-spread  and  alarming,  finally,  in  various  quarters 
breaking  out  into  open  insurrection.  Of  these  disturbances 
the  most  notable  were  those  in  Massachusetts  (1786),  which 
culminated  in  "  Shays'  Rebellion."  A  few  particulars  of  the 
effects  of  the  war  in  the  one  state,  will  suffice  the  purpose  of 
our  history,  in  pointing  out  the  error  of  a  resort  to  arms  for  the 
settlement  of  differences  which  can  be  far  better  adjusted  by 
remonstrance  and  arbitration. 

The  debt  of  Massachusetts  at  the  end  of  the  war,  together 
with  the  state's  proportion  of  the  national  debt,  and  the  money 
due  to  its  soldiers,  exceeded  thirty  times  the  amount  of  its 
debt  before  the  war  !  In  addition  to  this,  every  town  was  em 
barrassed  by  advances  which  had  been  made  in  complying 
with  requisitions  for  soldiers  and  supplies.  On  the  other  hand, 
in  the  maritime  towns,  many  men  had  acquired  fortunes,  di 
rectly  or  indirectly,  by  privateering.  Among  these  an  emu 
lation  began  to  be  manifest  of  making  a  free  display  of  their 
riches, — an  example  which  their  less  opulent  neighbors  were 
not  slow  to  imitate. 

To  gratify  this  new  taste  for  luxuries,  foreign  articles  were 
imported  in  quantities  which  the  exhausted  state  of  the  country 
would  not  warrant,  especially  as  commerce  and  the  fisheries 
had  been  so  greatly  crippled.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  instance 
the  fact  that  the  merchant  fleet  of  Nantucket  had  been  reduced 
by  the  war,  from  150  sail  to  19.  One  of  the  severest  effects  of 
the  Revolution  is  stated  to  have  been,  the  loss  of  many  markets 
to  which  Americans  had  formerly  resorted  with  their  produce. 
And  inasmuch  as  such  produce  could  not  be  procured  to  pay 
for  foreign  importations,  the  little  specie  that  remained  was 
o* 


322  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1786 

necessarily  in  demand  for  that  purpose  ;  and,  not  being  always 
adequate  to  meet  the  requisition,  numbers  of  the  importers 
became  bankrupt. 

But  the  chief  cause  of  the  commotion  which  broke  out  in 
Massachusetts,  was  the  accumulation  of  private  debts.  An 
act  had  been  passed  which  provided  that  cattle,  and  other 
things  especially  enumerated,  might,  in  default  of  money,  be 
used  to  satisfy  executions  for  debt;  but  this  "Tender  Act" 
became  so  obnoxious,  that  it  remained  but  a  short  time  in 
force.  Cases  of  litigation,  however,  multiplied;  the  public 
outcry  being  first  directed  against  the  lawyers  as  being  the 
legal  instruments  of  their  tribulations,  and  then  against  the 
holding  of  the  courts,  because  from  them  issued  the  executions 
for  debts. 

At  Northampton,  the  malcontents  to  the  number  of  nearly 
1500,  took  forcible  possession  of  the  court-house;  and  in  several 
other  of  the  towns,  in  defiance  of  the  governor's  proclama 
tion,  similar  insurrectionary  measures  were  adopted.  Many 
of  the  insurgents  were  soldiers  of  the  late  war,  who,  as  they 
had  shouldered  their  muskets  to  settle  their  grievances  against 
England,  considered  themselves  justified  in  trying  the  same 
violent  method  in  the  present  case.  Incited  by  their  success 
in  embarrassing  the  proceedings  of  the  common  pleas  courts, 
the  insurgents  attempted  to  stop  the  assembling  of  the  supreme 
court  also,  hoping  by  that  means  to  prevent  a  legal  prosecu 
tion  of  their  riotous  acts. 

At  Springfield,  several  hundred  armed  men,  led  by  Daniel 
Shays,  a  captain  of  the  late  Continental  army,  having  obtained 
possession  of  the  court-house,  endeavored  to  secure  the  federal 
arsenal  likewise ;  but  they  were  met  by  some  of  the  state  mili 
tia,  and  several  of  their  number  killed.  Meanwhile,  the  main 
body  of  the  state  troops  under  General  Lincoln  advancing  into 
western  Massachusetts,  several  skirmishes  ensued,  resulting  in 
the  discomfiture  of  the  insurgents,  who  were  obliged  to  take 


1786]  THE   CONSTITUTION.  323 

refuge  in  the  surrounding  states.  Many  of  the  fugitives  were 
harbored  in  Vermont,  which,  nine  years  previously  (in  1 7  7  7)  had 
declared  itself  a  separate  state,  independent  of  both  New  York 
and  New  Hampshire.  Although  a  number  of  the  leaders  of 
the  insurrection  were  apprehended  and  sentenced  to  death, 
they  were  subsequently  pardoned,  while  the  grievances  com 
plained  of  were  mostly  remedied  by  acts  of  the  general  court 
and  the  legislature :  the  proper  channels  for  the  rectification 
of  abuses,  they  being  open  to  all. 


THE    CONSTITUTION.      WASHINGTON    ELECTED    FIRST    PRESI 
DENT. 

The  authority  vested  in  the  Congress  of  the  American  states, 
while  it  had  sufficed  for  the  purposes  of  a  military  confede 
racy,  like  that  of  the  preceding  century  in  New  England,  was 
found  to  be  totally  inadequate  as  a  permanent  form  of  govern 
ment.  The  compact  was  one  of  mere  temporary  convenience ; 
and,  since  each  state  had  reserved  so  much  liberty  of  govern 
ment  to  itself,  it  became  very  soon  evident  there  could  be  no 
wise  concert  of  action  until  the  articles  of  confederation  were 
amended  to  meet  the  exigencies  of  the  occasion.  For  instance, 
some  of  the  treaties  made  with  foreign  nations  had  been  com 
plied  with  by  part  of  the  states,  but  violated  by  others ;  and 
in  the  same  manner,  when  the  Congress  had  declared  a  sys 
tem  of  imposts,  only  those  states  adopted  it  whose  conveni 
ence  it  happened  to  suit. 

In  accordance  with  a  proposition  made  by  JAMES  MADISON 
in  the  Legislature  of  Virginia,  delegates  from  five  of  the 
middle  states  met  at  Annapolis  in  1786,  for  the  purpose  of 
taking  measures  to  reform  the  system  of  government.  But, 
as  a  minority  only  of  the  states  was  there  represented,  and 
the  power  vested  in  the  delegates  was  too  limited  for  the 
occasion,  it  was  judged  best  to  recommend  a  general  conven- 


324  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1786 

tion  of  delegates  to  meet  the  following  year  at  Philadelphia. 
The  assembly  met,  pursuant  to  the  call,  and,  having  elected 
George  Washington,  one  of  the  members  from  Virginia,  their 
president,  they  proceeded  with  the  momentous  task  of  framing 
a  new  constitution. 

There  was  necessarily  much  conflict  of  opinion  as  to  what 
degree  of  power  it  was  advisable  should  be  conferred  by  the 
separate  states  upon  the  one  central  government ;  those  in  favor 
of  a  strong  compact  of  the  states  being  called  Federalists, 
while  their  opponents,  who  feared  the  curtailment  of  the 
states'  rights,  were  known  as  Anti-Federalists. 

Another  chief  point  of  disagreement  was  in  regard  to  the 
representation  to  be  allowed  in  Congress  to  the  slave-holding 
states  ;  it  being  contended  by  the  delegates  who  did  not  favor 
slavery,  that  the  number  of  free  white  citizens  in  each  state 
should  constitute  the  basis  of  apportionment.  They  thought 
that,  since  the  negroes  were  held  to  be  chattels,  debarred 
from  all  the  privileges  of  citizenship,  the  fact  of  their  posses 
sion  should  not  enhance  the  representative  power  of  the 
masters  any  more  than  should  the  possession  of  any  other 
species  of  property.  But  it  was  finally  allowed,  that  in  deter 
mining  the  quota  of  representation  for  those  states,  five  slaves 
should  be  counted  as  equivalent  to  three  white  inhabitants. 
The  new  constitution  was  ratified  by  eleven  of  the  states  in 
1788.  Of  the  two  dissenting  states,  North  Carolina  adopted 
it  in  1789,  and  Rhode  Island  in  1790. 

Had  the  constitution  provided  that  slaves  should  not  be  counted 
in  computing  the  quota  of  representatives,  it  is  highly  probable  that 
our  country  would  have  escaped  the  sad  experience  of  the  War  of 
Emancipation.  The  slave  power  would  then  not  have  been  over- 
represented,  and  hence  would  have  been  more  likely  to  accept  of 
some  satisfactory  plan  of  adjustment  ere  sectional  bitterness  closed 
the  way. 

The  preamble  of  the  constitution  declares  that  it  is  ordained 


iyS6]  THE   CONSTITUTION.  325 

by  and  in  the  name  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  and 
that  its  purposes  are  "  to  form  a  more  perfect  union,  establish 
justice,  insure  domestic  tranquillity,  provide  for  the  common 
defence,  promote  the  general  welfare,  and  secure  the  blessings 
of  liberty  to  themselves  and  their  posterity." 

By  its  provisions,  the  legislative  power  is  vested  in  two  as 
semblies — a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives.  The 
Senate  is  composed  of  two  members  from  each  state,  who  are 
chosen  by  the  legislatures  of  the  respective  states,  their  term 
of  service  being  for  six  years.  The  members  of  the  lower 
house  are  chosen  directly  by  the  electors  of  the  states,  and 
are  apportioned  to  each  state  according  to  the  number  of  its 
inhabitants.  The  term  of  the  representatives  is  for  two 
years.  They  choose  their  presiding  officer,  who  is  called  the 
"speaker."  Both  houses  together  are  called  the  Congress, 
and  they  must  convene  as  often  as  once  every  year. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  a  president  and  vice-presi 
dent  chosen  by  the  people  for  a  term  of  four  years.  The 
vice-president  is  the  presiding  officer  or  speaker  of  the  Senate. 
The  president  is  privileged  to  nominate  ambassadors  and  con 
suls,  to  appoint  heads  of  the  departments,  judges  of  the  Su 
preme  Court  and  many  other  officials,  to  enter  into  treaties 
with  foreign  powers,  etc.,  subject,  however,  to  confirmation 
by  the  Senate.  He  is  also  commander-in-chief  of  the  army 
and  navy  when  they  are  in  actual  service. 

The  judicial  power  of  the  republic  is  vested  in  a  Supreme 
Court  and  such  other  inferior  courts  as  Congress  may  from 
time  to  time  establish.  Any  laws,  state  or  federal,  which  shall 
be  adjudged  as  at  variance  with  the  federal  constitution,  the 
Supreme  Court  may  declare  to  be  illegal  and  not  binding ; 
and  all  disputes  between  two  states,  or  the  citizens  of  one 
state  and  the  government  of  another,  may  be  referred  to  the 
same  tribunal.  The  term  of  office  of  the  judges,  it  is  very 

properly  ordained,  shall  be  during  good  behavior.     They  may 

28 


326  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1789 

be  impeached  for  misdemeanor  by  the  House  of  Representa 
tives,  with  which  body  impeachments  against  the  president  or 
vice-president  must  also  originate.  The  Senate  is  the  court 
for  trying  such  cases.  Should  a  president,  vice-president,  or 
United  States  judge  be  found  guilty,  no  penalty  is  permitted 
greater  than  loss  of  office  and  disqualification  to  hold  it  in 
future. 

It  was  the  intention  of  the  framers  of  the  Constitution  that 
the  three  co-ordinate  branches  of  the  government — the  legisla 
tive,  executive  and  judicial — should  act  as  checks  upon  each 
other.  The  power  of  originating  bills  and  making  appropri 
ations  being  lodged  with  the  most  popular  section  of  the 
national  legislature,  the  House  of  Representatives,  it  was  be 
lieved  that  the  latter  would  serve  the  purpose  of  a  counter 
poise  to  the  Senate,  the  treaty-making  power.  This  associ 
ation  of  two  legislative  assemblies  is  now  common  to  all  con 
stitutional  governments.  The  president's  veto  (only  to  be 
overcome  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses)  is  well  de 
signed  to  prevent  inconsiderate  haste  in  the  passage  of  any 
bill.  Further,  if  an  act  passed  by  Congress  be  approved  by 
the  president,  it  may  still  be  set  aside  if  declared  unconstitu 
tional  by  the  Supreme  Court. 

The  plan  of  our  government  has  been 'thought  to  nearly 
resemble  that  of  the  Achaean  League,  with  its  strategus  or 
president,  council  and  senate,  formed  in  the  third  century 
E.  c.  between  twelve  towns  of  the  Grecian  Peloponnesus  for 
their  mutual  welfare  and  support.  Of  modern  confederations 
or  unions,  it  has  been  compared  with  the  present  federal  gov 
ernment  of  Switzerland,  and  with  the  Union  of  Utrecht  formed 
in  1579  between  the  provinces  of  the  Netherlands.  More 
nearly,  however,  do  these  agree  with  the  original  American 
government,  as  founded  on  the  Articles  of  Confederation  of 
1777.  That  was  simply  a  league  of  friendship  between  the 
several  states  for  their  common  defence  and  mutual  welfare, 


1789]  GROWTH  OF  REPUBLICANISM.  327 

whereas  the  national  union  of  1787  is  declared  to  have  been 
made  by  and  between  the  "people  of  the  United  States." 

Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  colonies  had  been  so  va 
riously  governed — some  under  proprietary  rule,  others  under 
royal  governors,  and  others  again  under  charters  which  per 
mitted  the  freemen  to  frame  their  own  laws — yet  in  all,  the 
strong  undercurrent  of  republicanism  made  itself  apparent. 
As  all  were  united  in  the  purpose  of  upholding  the  principles 
of  self-rule,  and  as  life-term  magistracy  and  hereditary  nobil 
ity  were  not  tolerated,  the  governments  must  have  eventually 
ripened  into  the  republican  form,  even  without  revolution. 
Early  was  this  tendency  manifested  in  New  England :  first, 
by  the  signers  of  the  Mayflower  compact  in  carrying  into 
practice  the  wise  political  counsel  of  pastor  Robinson  of  Ley- 
den,  and  subsequently  by  the  Puritan  settlers  generally,  who 
at  their  town-meetings  regulated  all  matters  pertaining  to  the 
public  health,  education,  the  poor,  roads,  finances,  etc.  Sim 
ilarly  in  Pennsylvania,  under  proprietary  rule,  the  settlers  were 
allowed,  in  accordance  with  Penn's  own  declaration,  "to  be 
governed  by  laws  of  their  own  making."  In  other  cases, 
where  royal  governors  ruled,  the  freemen,  through  domestic 
councils,  while  they  regulated  the  governors'  salaries,  also 
made  laws  which  they  believed  were  suited  to  their  neces 
sities. 

Although  there  was  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  Puritans  in 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  and  Episcopalians  in  Vir 
ginia  and  South  Carolina,  toward  uniting  the  political  and 
ecclesiastical  powers,  the  Baptists  of  Rhode  Island,  disavowing 
all  connection  between  Church  and  State,  early  pronounced 
for  entire  freedom  of  conscience.  For  maintaining  this  prin 
ciple,  Roger  Williams  was  banished  from  Massachusetts,  and 
Quakers  were  ignominiously  hung  on  Boston  Common.  The 
faithfulness  of  a  few,  in  patiently  following  the  line  of  duty, 
may,  by  God's  letting,  accomplish  a  work  which  hosts  of 


328  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1789 

heroes  might  vainly  battle  for  at  the  cannon's  mouth.  That 
men's  consciences  throughout  the  republic  should  remain  un 
shackled,  and  that  ecclesiasticism  should  never  find  place  as  a 
function  of  the  government,  the  first  amendment  to  the  Con 
stitution  declares  that  "Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting 
an  establishment  of  religion  or  prohibiting  the  free  exercise 
thereof." 

Washington,  who,  as  already  stated,  had  been  a  delegate  to 
the  convention  which  framed  the  constitution,  was  the  first 
choice  of  the  people  for  their  president.  In  the  retirement 
of  Mount  Vernon,  he  had  found  congenial  occupation  in  the 
improvement  of  his  estate  and  in  the  gratification  of  a  taste 
for  the  beauties  of  landscape  gardening.  When  on  a  visit  to 
certain  lands  owned  by  him  upon  the  Ohio,  he  became  im 
pressed  with  the  feasibility  and  importance  of  uniting  the 
head-waters  of  that  great  stream  with  those  of  the  Potomac 
and  the  James,  and  thereby  opening  a  perpetual  channel  of 
intercommunication  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  fertile  prai 
ries  of  the  West.  A  memorial  which  he  addressed  to  the 
Virginia  legislature  upon  this  important  subject,  resulted  in 
the  formation  of  the  Potomac  Company,  and  the  Kanawha 
and  James  River  Company. 

In  the  spring  of  1789, -Washington,  then  in  the  57th  year 
of  his  age,  was  inaugurated  president  of  the  United  States. 
The  ceremony  was  performed  amidst  much  popular  enthusiasm, 
in  the  city  of  New  York,  where  the  national  Congress  was  in . 
session.  JOHN  ADAMS,  of  Massachusetts,  had  been  elected 
to  the  office  of  vice-president.  The  other  chief  officers  of 
the  government  at  its  first  organization,  were  Thomas  Jeffer 
son,  secretary  of  state;  Alexander  Hamilton,  secretary  of  the 
treasury;  Henry  Knox,  secretary  of  war;  Edmund  Randolph, 
attorney-general;  Samuel  Osgood,  postmaster-general;  and 
John  Jay,  chief-justice  of  the  United  States.  These  consti 
tuted  the  "cabinet;"  being  appointed  to,  or  removable  from, 


1790]  FINANCES.  329 

office,  directly  by  the  president.  The.  offices  of  secretary  of 
the  navy  and  secretary  of  the  interior  were  added  afterward. 

With  the  wise  and  impressive  utterances  of  Washington's 
Inaugural  Address  before  them,  Congress  at  once  devised 
measures  for  raising  a  revenue  to  defray  the  expenses  of  car 
rying  on  the  government  and  for  the  payment  of  the  debt 
contracted  during  the  war.  This  was  effected  by  laying  du 
ties  on  merchandise  imported, — in  other  words,  by  a  tariff; 
and  likewise  by  a  similar  duty  charged  upon  the  tonnage  of 
vessels.  At  the  same  time,  in  order  to  give  encouragement 
to  native  shipping,  a  discrimination  was  made  both  in  favor 
of  the  tonnage-tax  on  American  vessels  and  in  the  duty  upon 
foreign  articles  imported  in  them. 

Other  important  measures  of  this  Congress  were  the  organi 
zation  of  the  national  courts  into  a  Supreme  Court,  Circuit 
and  District  Courts;  the  amendment  of  the  constitution  by 
the  adoption  of  twelve  new  articles;  and  the  arranging  of 
the  salaries.  The  president's  salary  was  fixed  at  $25,000; 
that  of  the  vice-president  at  $5000 ;  those  of  the  heads  of 
departments  (the  cabinet  officers)  at  $3500  each.  Members  of 
the  Senate  were  to  receive  seven  dollars  per  day,  and  allow 
ance  for  travelling  expenses ;  representatives,  the  same  allow 
ance,  and  six  dollars  per  day. 

The  session  of  the  following  year  (1790)  was  very  much 
engrossed  by  the  consideration  of  the  finances.  Hamilton, 
the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  presented  to  Congress  a  plan  for 
funding  the  national  and  state  debts  into  one,  and  also  a 
recommendation  for  the  imposition  of  taxes  on  articles  of 
luxury  and  on  spirituous  liquors.  The  funding  measure  gave 
rise  to  a  great  deal  of  animated  and  even  bitter  debate  be 
tween  the  Federalists  who  favored  its  passage,  and  their  op 
ponents.  The  latter  feared  that  if  the  general  government 
assumed  the  state  debts,  and  thus  made  the  capitalists  depend 
ent  upon  a  central  power,  it  would  weaken  the  influence  of 

28* 


330  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1790 

the  state  governments ;  hence  they  preferred  that  the  states 
should  take  the  burden  of  repayment  upon  themselves.  The 
Southern  members,  as  they,  more  especially,  favored  "states' 
rights,"  were  therefore  opposed  to  the  funding  bill,  and  herein 
they  had  the  outspoken  support  of  Jefferson.  Its  passage, 
nevertheless,  was  effected  by  a  compromise  upon  a  very  dif 
ferent  matter,  to  wit :  that  the  seat  of  government  should  be 
removed,  within  ten  years,  from  Philadelphia  to  some  place 
to  be  selected  on  the  Potomac.  The  amount  of  the  debt 
was  about  75  million  dollars,  upon  part  of  which  the  rate  of 
interest  was  placed  at  three  per  cent.,  and  upon  the  rest  at  six 
per  cent.  A  national  bank,  with  a  capital  of  10  million  dol 
lars,  was  also  ordered,  and  was  established  at  Philadelphia. 

Reference  has  been  made  on  a  preceding  page  (295)  to  the 
disturbances  which  arose  in  the  territory  between  the  upper 
Connecticut  and  Hudson  rivers,  in  consequence  of  the  rival 
claims  of  New  York  and  New  Hampshire  for  the  ownership 
of  that  district.  Benning  Wentworth,  governor  of  the  latter 
colony,  had  issued  (1749)  the  first  of  the  New  Hampshire 
grants — that  for  the  township  of  Bennington.  Many  similar 
grants  were  issued  during  several  succeeding  years,  notwith 
standing  the  claims  of  New  York,  founded  upon  the  patent 
to  the  Duke  of  York,  to  jurisdiction  over  that  region.  Final 
ly,  in  1764,  appeal  having  been  made  by  the  claimants  to  the 
Crown,  decision  was  given  in  favor  of  New  York.  In  1791 
the  "Green  Mountain  State"  was  admitted,  the  fourteenth 
member  of  the  American  Union,  the  State  of  New  York  hav 
ing  relinquished  all  right  to  the  soil  upon  receipt  of  the  sum 
of  thirty  thousand  dollars. 

All  that  part  of  original  Virginia  lying  south  of  the  Ohio 
and  west  of  the  Big  Sandy  river  and  the  Cumberland  Moun 
tains,  having  been  surrendered  to  the  general  government, 
became  the  State  of  Kentucky,  and  was  admitted  into  the 
Union,  next  after  Vermont,  in  1792.  Where  LOUISVILLE 


33 2  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1790 

was  afterward  built,  at  the  falls  of  the  Ohio,  a  stockade  fort 
had  been  erected  (1778)  by  a  party  of  Americans  during  the 
Revolutionary  War.  All  of  western  North  Carolina  extend 
ing  from  the  Great  Smoky  range  to  the  Mississippi,  became 
the  State  of  Tennessee,  and  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in 
1796.  Western  Georgia,  and  the  long,  narrow  strip,  scarcely 
fourteen  miles  wide,  of  western  South  Carolina,  was  erected 
into  the  Territory  of  Mississippi,  out  of  which  were  subse 
quently  formed  the  two  States  of  Mississippi  and  Alabama. 

The  territory  north  and  west  of  the  Ohio,  extending  to  the 
Mississippi  river,  was  conveyed  -by  Virginia,  New  York,  Con 
necticut  and  Massachusetts  to  the  general  government  within 
a  few  years  after  the  adoption  of  the  Articles  of  Confedera 
tion  in  1777.  A  condition  of  the  conveyance  was,  that  the 
territory  thus  surrendered  should  be  divided  into  not  less  than 
three,  nor  more  than  five,  states.  The  "territory  north-west 
of  the  Ohio"  was  accordingly  organized  (1787),  and  in 
due  course,  as  the  requisite  population  stipulated  by  the 
Constitution  was  reached,  there  were  admitted  successively 
the  five  states  of  Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  Michigan  and  Wis 
consin. 

Washington  was  re-elected  president,  and  John  Adams, 
vice-president,  at  the  election  in  the  autumn  of  1792.  This 
was  the  period  of  the  French  Revolution  or  "Reign  of  Ter 
ror,"  which,  beginning  in  1789,  culminated  in  1793  ^n  tne 
execution  of  Louis  XVI. ,  the  downfall  of  the  royal  house  of 
Bourbon,  and  the  proclamation  of  the  French  Republic. 

THE   MIAMI   WAR.     THE   WHISKEY   INSURRECTION. 

Twenty-six  years  had  elapsed  since  the  failure  of  Pontiac's 
conspiracy,  when,  in  1790,  there  occurred  another  general 
outbreak  of  the  western  Indians,  the  foremost  inciter  of  which 
was  a  chief  of  the  Miami  tribe,  named  LITTLE  TURTLE.  It 


1795]  THE  MIAMI   WAR.  333 

is  not  improbable  that  some  unprincipled  plotters  among  the 
Canadians  encouraged  the  hostility  of  the  Indians,  for  De 
troit  and  a  few  other  frontier  posts  within  the  boundary  of  the 
United  States  were  still  held  by  the  English,  on  the  plea  that 
certain  treaty  stipulations  remained  as  yet  unfulfilled.  Simon 
Girty,  a  half-breed  trader,  notorious  as  a  busy-body  and  fo- 
menter  of  discord,  was  an  active  agent  in  the  movements 
which  had  led  to  the  massacre  of  the  Moravian  Indians  at 
Gnadenhtitten. 

Carried  away  with  the  illusive  hope  of  exterminating  the 
whites,  the  banded  warriors  committed  terrible  atrocities 
along  the  western  border.  In  return,  a  force  under  General 
HARMER  destroyed  a  number  of  their  villages  in  the  Ohio 
territory ;  but  Harmer  being  defeated  in  an  engagement  with 
the  Indians,  the  command  of  the  army  was  transferred  to 
General  ST.  CLAIR,  governor  of  the  North-Western  territory. 
The  latter,  however,  while  in  the  vicinity  of  the  Miami  vil 
lages,  was  surprised  by  Little  Turtle's  band,  and  a  wholesale 
massacre  of  the  whites  took  place.  Not  more  than  one-fourth 
of  them  escaped.  So  disastrous  was  this  defeat,  and  so  un 
popular  the  war,  that  a  truce  with  the  Indians  was  agreed  to. 

Yet,  the  tribes  having  refused  the  following  year  to  consent 
to  a  treaty,  General  Wayne  with  an  army  of  3000  men  now 
undertook  to  chastise  them.  Contrary  to  the  advice  of  Little 
Turtle,  who  had  heard  of  Wayne's  prowess  in  battle,  the  In 
dians  again  came  into  conflict  with  the  whites,  and  were  this 
time  badly  defeated.  All  the  chiefs  of  the  Wyandottes,  nine 
in  number,  were  slain.  Being  satisfied  of  the  futility  of  con 
tending  any  longer,  the  chiefs  of  twelve  tribes  met  the  ap 
pointed  commissioners  in  the  8th  month  (August),  1795,  at 
Fort  Greenville,  and  agreed,  as  a  condition  of  peace,  to  re 
linquish  an  extensive  territory  south  of  Lake  Erie,  as  well 
as  certain  other  tracts  in  which  were  the  military  posts  of 
the  West.  The  United  States  conditioned  to  pay  them  a 


334  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1791 

perpetual  annuity  of  a  few  thousand  dollars  in  money  and 
goods. 

Shortly  before  the  above  treaty  was  concluded,  a  formidable 
rebellion,  known  as  the  "Whiskey  Insurrection,"  broke  out 
in  western  Pennsylvania.  The  pioneers  of  that  region,  many 
of  whom  were  from  Ireland  and  North  Britain,  having  an  in 
herited  love  of  ardent  spirits,  had  themselves  become  large 
producers  of  Monongahela  whiskey.  The  province  of  Penn 
sylvania  had,  as  early  as  1756,  laid  an  excise  duty  on  this 
article,  to  obtain  the  means  of  sustaining  its  bills  of  credit. 
These,  it  will  be  remembered,  were  made  necessary,  in  order 
to  defray  the  cost  of  fighting  the  French  and  Indians.  For  a 
few  years  prior  to  the  Revolution,  however,  the  tax  had  not 
been  rigorously  collected ;  but,  when  the  debts  caused  by  that 
war  began  to  press  heavily,  then  the  law  was  again  enforced. 

In  the  estimation  of  the  whiskey  distillers,  this  was  an 
infringement  of  their  liberties  equal  to  the  imposition  of  the 
tax  on  tea  by  Great  Britain  ;  and  in  a  similar  manner  they 
prepared  to  contest  its  collection.  The  law-officers  were  mal 
treated  or  chased  away,  liberty-poles  were  erected,  and  the 
people  assembled  in  arms.  The  state  excise  tax  was  soon  after 
ward  repealed,  and  whiskey  remained  thus  exempt  until  1791 ; 
but,  Congress  having  then  passed  a  like  law  for  the  benefit  of 
the  national  treasury,  the  former  scenes  of  violence  were  re- 
enacted.  The  principal  mode  of  opposition  was  that  of  tar 
ring  and  feathering  the  obnoxious  officers,  and  of  burning  the 
barns  and  mills  of  those  distillers  who  complied  with  the 
law. 

After  these  violent  proceedings  had  continued  for  about 
three  years,  and  a  body  of  malcontents  from  Braddock's-field 
had  menaced  Pittsburg,  the  president  issued  a  requisition  upon 
the  governors  of  Pennsylvania  and  of  several  of  the  adjoining 
states,  for  an  army  of  15,000  men  to  quell  the  disturbances. 
Governor  Lee,  of  Virginia,  was  placed  in  command  of  the 


1794]  WHISKEY  INSURRECTION.  335 

troops,  but,  fortunately,  a  conflict  was  prevented  through  the 
earnest  persuasions  of  a  number  of  the  residents  of  the  dis 
affected  district.  One  of  the  most  influential  of  these  was 
ALBERT  GALLATIN,  a  native  of  Geneva,  in  Switzerland.  A 
man  of  liberal  education,  and  imbued  with  republican  senti 
ments,  he  came  to  this  country  in  1780,  and  eventually  settled 
on  the  banks  of  the  Monongahela,  where  he  established  the 
glass-works  and  village  of  New  Geneva.  Although  opposed 
to  the  excise  tax,  he  was  a  man  of  moderation,  and  hence  his 
judicious  appeals  in  favor  of  law  and  order  were  well  re 
ceived.  After  a  few  of  the  leaders  had  been  arrested,  the 
army  was  withdrawn,  and  quiet  was  soon  fully  restored. 

France  being  at  war  with  England  and  Holland,  the  Amer 
icans  were  much  inclined  to  extend  aid  to  the  young  republic; 
but  Washington  was  strongly  opposed  to  any  interference  on 
the  part  of  his  countrymen  with  the  affairs  of  the  nations 
beyond  the  Atlantic.  His  cabinet,  being  unanimously  of  the 
same  mind,  a  proclamation  of  neutrality  was  issued.  Never 
theless,  the  country  for  awhile  seemed  in  danger  of  drifting 
into  the  strife,  through  the  reckless  behavior  of  the  new 
French  minister,  the  "Citizen"  Genet,  who,  mistaking  the 
warmth  of  his  reception  by  the  American  people  for  a  will 
ingness  to  afford  warlike  aid,  presumed  to  fit  out  privateers  at  • 
the  port  of  Charleston,  to  cruise  against  his  country's  enemies. 
This,  and  other  arbitrary  measures,  rendered  him  so  unpop 
ular  that  he  was  shortly  recalled  by  his  government.  JAMES 
MONROE  was  our  own  representative  at  the  French  capital. 

Important  treaties  were  also  entered  into  with  England  and 
Spain.  By  the  treaty  of  1794  with  England,  Detroit  and  the 
other  western  posts  were  given  up;  but  the  Uni'ted  States 
conceded  to  England  the  right  claimed  by  that  country  of 
searching  merchant-vessels, — a  permission  which,  though  it 
caused  a  great  clamor  as  being  humiliating,  was  certainly  a 
point  which  was  not  worth  fighting  for.  Thieves  are  not 


336  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1796 

sought  for  in  the  houses  of  honest  men,  and  no  government 
professing  neutrality  is  just  and  ingenuous  in  its  policy  if  it 
consents  to  harbor  armed  plotters  against  the  peace  of  a  sister 
nation.  In  short,  the  treaty  was  happily  conceived,  and  its 
benefits  became  apparent  in  the  removal  of  the  various  causes 
of  uneasiness,  of  complaint  and  of  recrimination  between  the 
two  countries.  Nevertheless,  dissatisfaction  concerning  the 
right  of  search  ensued,  when  England,  a  few  years  later, 
abused  the  concession. 

By  the  treaty  with  Spain,  the  boundary  between  its  prov 
ince  of  Louisiana  and  the  United  States  was  amicably  adjusted. 
The  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  was  secured  to  the 
American  government,  together  with  the  privilege,  hitherto 
withheld,  of  landing  and  depositing  cargoes  at  New  Orleans. 

The  wisdom  manifested  by  Washington  in  thus  administer 
ing  the  political  affairs  of  the  nation,  especially  in  deprecating 
warfare  with  foreign  powers,  had  resulted  in  a  very  marked 
commercial  prosperity,  the  amount  of  our  exports  having  in 
creased,  during  his  eight  years'  term,  from  19  to  56  million 
dollars.  In  his  Farewell  Address  to  the  American  people, 
published  in  1796,  he  calls  upon  them  to  cherish  an  unwaver 
ing  attachment  for  the  union  of  the  states,  and  ever  to  watch 
for  its  preservation  inviolate.  As  peculiarly  hostile  to  re 
publican  liberty,  he  warns  them  against  the  maintenance  of  a 
large  military  establishment.  Believing  the  constitution  to 
have  been  wisely  framed,  he  also  cautions  against  any  altera 
tion  of  its  provisions  without  positive  necessity  being  ap 
parent  ;  while  party  spirit  he  especially  reprobates  as  being 
inimical  to  the  best  interests  of  the  people  at  large. 


CHAPTER    XXV. 

ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  ADAMS  AND  JEFFERSON. 
1797—1809. 


JOHN    ADAMS,  SECOND    PRESIDENT.     DISPUTES    WITH 
FRANCE. 

NOTWITHSTANDING  the  cautionary  admonitions  of  Washing 
ton,  the  conflict  of  parties  continued  greatly  to  agitate  the 
nation,  the  partisans  of  the  two  chief  political  divisions  being 
sharply  divided  not  only  upon  various  subjects  of  domestic 
policy,  but  also  with  regard  to  the  foreign  relations  of  the  na 
tion.  The  Federalists  were  charged  by  their  opposers  with  an 
undue  partiality  for  England,  whilst  the  Republicans,  on  the 
other  hand,  were  accused  of  manifesting  too  strong  a  friendship 
for  France.  As  Washington  declined  to  be  a  candidate  for  a 
third  term,  the  choice  of  the  people  for  his  successor  in  the 
presidency,  fell  upon  John  Adams  of  Massachusetts,  a  Feder 
alist.  THOMAS  JEFFERSON,  of  Virginia,  a  Republican,  was 
chosen  vice-president. 

John  Adams  was  of  a  Puritan  family  which  had  emigrated 
from  England  to  Massachusetts  about  twenty  years  after  the 
landing  of  the  Pilgrims  at  Plymouth.  He  was  a  strong  advo 
cate  of  separation  from  the  mother  country,  and,  at  the  mem 
orable  Congress  which  assembled  at  Philadelphia  in  1776, 
was  one  of  the  committee  appointed  to  draft  the  Declaration 
of  Independence, — a  duty,  however,  which  principally  de 
volved  on  Jefferson.  Adams  was  the  first  ambassador  of  the 
United  States  to  England. 

p  29  337 


338  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1797 

Jefferson  was  the  son  of  a  planter  of  Albemarle  county, 
Virginia.  After  the  important  part  he  had  taken  in  the  Con 
gress  of  1776,  he  became  governor  of  Virginia,  and  was  sub 
sequently  sent  as  minister  to  France.  Adams,  like  Washington, 
was  in  favor  of  a  firm  centralized  government ;  whilejefferson, 
perhaps  a  stronger  advocate  of  a  republican  government  than 
either  of  the  former,  favored  more  liberty  for  the  individual 
states.  The  reason  why  a  president  and  vice-president  of  such 
opposite  political  views  were  chosen,  was  because  the  then 
method  of  balloting  for  those  officers  was  for  each  elector  to 
vote  for  two  persons  ;  he  who  received  the  highest  number  of 
votes  being  elected  president,  and  the  second  on  the  list,  vice- 
president.  Many  of  the  Federalists  voted  for  Jefferson,  in 
stead  of  their  own  candidate  for  vice-president. 

Immediately  after  their  inauguration  (3d  month  4th,  1797) 
the  attention  of  the  new  incumbents  was  turned  to  the  hostile 
attitude  of  the  French  Directory,  which,  having  failed  to  per 
suade  the  American  government  to  forsake  its  policy  of  neu 
trality,  was  disposed  to  make  its  displeasure  apparent.  Re 
fusing  to  receive  Pinckney  as  minister,  in  place  of  Monroe, 
until  their  demands  should  be  complied  with  by  the  United 
States,  the  president  thereupon  appointed  three  envoys-extra 
ordinary  to  proceed  to  the  French  capital.  Though  they  were 
not  officially  received,  the  envoys  were  given  to  understand 
that  the  payment  of  a  considerable  sum  of  money  to  Talley 
rand,  the  minister  of  foreign  relations,  would  open  the  wa^y  to 
negotiations  with  the  Directory.  As  this  method  of  inter 
course  was  as  unsatisfactory  as  it  was  dishonest,  the  envoys, 
after  several  months  spent  in  fruitless  parleys,  were  recalled  by 
the  president. 

A  war  now  seemed  imminent.  Washington  was  called  once 
more  from  his  home  on  the  Potomac  and  placed  in  command 
of  a  provisional  army,  while  the  navy  was  increased,  and  began 
measures  of  retaliation.  A  large  French  frigate,  L'Insurgent, 


i8oo]  JOHN  ADAMS,   SECOND   PRESIDENT.  339 

was  captured  by  the  Constellation,  commanded  by  Commo 
dore  Truxton.  But  at  this  crisis,  the  power  of  the  Directory 
was  overthrown  by  Bonaparte,  who,  being  willing  to  enter 
into  a  negotiation  with  the  United  States,  envoys  were  again 
appointed  to  proceed  to  Paris.  In  the  gth  month  (September), 
1800,  a  treaty  was  signed,  by  which  all  matters  in  dispute  were 
amicably  adjusted.  Before  the  treaty  was  concluded,  Wash 
ington  died  at  Mount  Vernon  the  i4th  day  of  the  i2th  month 
(December),  1799,  in  the  68th  year  of  his  age. 

The  warlike  measures  adopted  by  Adams  in  the  dispute  with 
France,  had  rendered  him  unpopular  with  many  citizens,  and 
this  feeling  was  increased  by  his  approval  of  the  "  Sedition" 
and  "Alien"  laws,  which  were  considered  as  opposed  to  the 
constitutional  guarantee  of  personal  liberty.  By  the  Sedition 
Law,  any  persons  combining  or  conspiring  together  to  oppose 
the  measures  of  the  government,  by  means  of  any  false  or 
scandalous  writing,  were  punishable  by  a  heavy  fine  and  long 
imprisonment.  The  Alien  Act  conferred  authority  upon  the 
president  to  banish  any  unnaturalized  foreigner  whom  he 
should  consider  dangerous  to  the  peace  and  liberty  of  the 
country.  These  restrictive  measures  were  adopted  to  circum 
vent  the  machinations  of  the  French  revolutionists,  whose  acts 
were  reprobated  as  partaking  far  more  of  unlimited  license 
than  of  true  liberty.  Similar  Alien  acts  were  passed  by 
the  English  parliament  in  1792  and  1793,  in  consequence  of 
the  great  influx  of  strangers, — many  of  them  being  political 
adventurers  suspected  of  sinister  motives. 

The  year  1800  is  also  memorable  as  being  that  in  which  the 
seat  of  the  Federal  government  was  removed  from  Philadel 
phia  to  the  city  of  Washington,  in  accordance  with  the  law 
passed  by  Congress  in  1790.  A  small  territory,  the  District 
of  Columbia,  square  in  shape,  and  measuring  ten  miles  on  each 
side,  situated  partly  in  the  state  of  Virginia  and  partly  in 
Maryland,  had  been  ceded  by  those  states  as  the  location  for 


340  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1801 

a  permanent  capital.  The  city  was  laid  out  under  the  direc 
tion  of  General  Washington,  with  streets  from  90  to  120  feet 
wide,  and  twenty  "avenues"  130  to  160  feet  in  width.  A 
capitol  and  other  public  buildings  having  been  erected,  Con 
gress  assembled  there  for  the  first  time  in  the  nth  month 
(November),  1800. 


THOMAS    JEFFERSON,     PRESIDENT.      ACQUISITION    OF   LOUISI 
ANA.      A   DUEL.      WAR  WITH   TRIPOLI. 

At  the  next  presidential  election,  the  result  of  a  persistent 
adherence  to  party  candidates  became  apparent  when  the 
electors  chosen  by  the  states  (who  together  constitute  the 
temporary  body  styled  the  "electoral  college"),  having  cast 
their  ballots,  it  was  found  that  Thomas  Jefferson  and  Aaron 
Burr  each  had  the  same  number  of  votes.  Consequently,  in 
accordance  with  a  constitutional  provision,  it  became  necessary 
to  refer  the  choice  to  the  House  of  Representatives.  Curiously 
it  happened,  that  the  like  result  transpired  there,  Jefferson 
and  Burr  receiving  again  an  equal  number  of  votes ;  and  it 
was  not  until  the  36th  ballot  had  been  taken,  that  the  change 
of  one  vote  decided  the  contest  for  the  presidency  in  favor  of 
Jefferson. 

Jefferson's  inaugural  speech  (1801)  instead  of  being  de 
livered  before  the  houses  of  Congress  in  person,  as  had  been 
done  by  Washington  and  Adams,  was  conveyed  to  those  bodies 
in  the  shape  of  a  written  message, — a  practice  which  was  fol 
lowed  by  his  successors.  To  fill  the  important  post  of  secre 
tary  of  state,  James  Madison  was  appointed.  The  various 
political  offices  of  the  country  were,  for  the  most  part,  trans 
ferred  to  the  adherents  of  the  successful  party.  Thus  was 
begun  that  bad  practice  of  substituting  party  favor  for  integrity 
and  ability,  which  has  to  this  day  proved  so  disastrous  to  the 
best  interests  of  the  country. 


iSoo]  ACQUISITION  OF  LOUISIANA.  34I 

The  Alien  and  Sedition  Laws  were  repealed  by  the  new 
administration,  and  the  excise  on  whiskey  abolished.  By  the 
second  census,  the  population  of  the  United  States  was  shown 
to  have  increased  from  about  four  million  in  1790,  to  five 
million  three  hundred  thousand;  and  the  exports,  from  19 
to  94  million  dollars.  Ohio  was  admitted  in  1802,  the  seven 
teenth  state  of  the  Union,  slavery  being  excluded.  The 
territory  of  this  state,  by  virtue  of  the  original  grants  from  the 
crown,  had  been  claimed  by  both  Connecticut  and  Virginia, 
but  those  claims  were  now  relinquished.  During  St.  Glair's 
governorship  of  the  North-West  Territory,  Fort  Washington 
was  built  on  the  Ohio  (1788),  on  the  site  of  the  future  city  of 
CINCINNATI. 

The  most  important  event  of  the  first  term  of  President 
Jefferson's  administration,  was  the  acquisition  of  the  territory 
of  Louisiana,  then  included  within  boundaries  many  times 
larger  than  is  the  present  state  of  that  name.  This  extensive 
territory,  which  had  been  transferred  by  France  to  Spain  in 
1762,  was  ceded  back  to  France  in  the  year  1800.  As  a  result 
of  the  latter  transfer,  the  permission  which  had  been  granted 
by  the  Spanish  authorities  to  United  States  citizens,  of  landing 
merchandise  at  the  port  of  New  Orleans,  was  rescinded.  Ap 
prehensive  that  the  commerce  of  the  western  rivers  would  be 
ruined  by  this  prohibition,  Congress  lost  no  time  in  repre 
senting  to  the  French  court  the  serious  loss  which  must  ensue. 
These  representations  having  been  made  in  a  reasonable  and 
amicable  spirit,  the  privilege  was  once  more  restored. 

So  obvious,  however,  was  the  desirability  of  obtaining  con 
trol  of  the  Louisiana  territory,  and  thus  permanently  assuring 
the  free  navigation  of  the  Mississippi  river,  that  Congress,  in 
structed  by  the  recent  troublesome  occurrence,  opened  nego 
tiations  with  the  French  government  for  its  purchase.  The 
proposal  was  acceded  to.  For  the  sum  of  fifteen  million  dol 
lars,  all  the  region  included  between  the  Mississippi  river  and 

29* 


342  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1804 

the  Rocky  Mountains  was  granted  absolutely  to  the  United 
States.  By  this  treaty,  which  was  concluded  at  Paris  in  1803, 
the  geographical  area  of  the  Republic  was  more  than  doubled. 
(See  map,  page  405.)  The  State  of  Louisiana  was  admitted 
into  the  Union  in  1812.  Although  its  staple,  the  sugar-cane, 
was  introduced  in  1751,  slow  progress  was  made  in  cultivat 
ing  it  until  1794,  when  the  revolution  in  San  Domingo  drove 
some  Frenchmen  to  Louisiana,  and  by  them  was  introduced 
an  improved  smaller  variety,  the  yellow  Creole  cane. 

In  the  summer  of  1804  occurred  the  death  of  Alexander 
Hamilton  in  a  duel  with  Aaron  Burr,  the  vice-president. 
Hamilton -had  been  the  constant  companion  and  counsellor 
of  Washington  during  the  latter  years  of  the  Revolutionary  war. 
About  the  time  of  the  framing  of  the  constitution,  he  had  pub 
lished,  under  the  title  of  "  The  Federalist,"  a  series  of  notable 
essays  intended  to  vindicate  the  constitution  from  the  various 
objections  which  had  been  urged  against  it.  As  secretary  of 
the  treasury  during  Washington's  presidency,  Hamilton  had 
acquired  a  reputation  for  ability  which  ranked  him  with  the 
greatest  financiers.  Upon  the  death  of  Washington,  he  be 
came  commander-in-chief  of  the  army ;  but,  having  incurred 
the  bitter  resentment  of  the  vice-president  on  account  of  some 
published  expressions  which  he  refused  either  to  retract  or 
deny,  Burr  sent  him  a  challenge  to  mortal  combat. 

Aaron  Burr,  although  a  grandson  of  the  good  Jonathan 
Edwards,  and  son  of  a  clergyman  (President  Burr,  of  Prince 
ton  College),  was  himself  a  skeptic  in  religion.  From  his 
youth  he  had  evinced  a  love  of  intrigue  and  of  the  military 
art,  had  gleaned  from  books  all  that  could  be  learned  of  the 
latter  "  profession,"  and  prized  the  soldier's  glory  above  any 
other.  After  taking  an  active  part  in  the  war  of  the  Revolu 
tion,  he  became  a  practicing  lawyer  of  New  York  city,  in 
reputation  second  to  Hamilton,  but  opposed  to  him  in  politics 
and  always  his  rival. 


1804]  HAMILTON  KILLED   BY  BURR.  343 

Hamilton,  it  is  true,  was  well  aware  that  he  had  given  Burr 
just  cause  of  offence.  He  was  ready  to  make  a  partial  ac 
knowledgment  of  his  error,  but  an  unworthy  fear,  the  dread 
of  public  opinion,  forbade  his  acting  that  nobler  part  which 
the  line  of  duty  called  for.  Thus,  rather  than  submit  to  what 
he  esteemed  to  be  a  humiliation,  Hamilton  accepted  the  chal 
lenge.  He  was  not  without  warning  of  the  miserable  fate 
which  was  likely  to  await  him,  for  his  own  eldest  son,  had, 
three  years  before,  been  shot  in  a  duel  which  had  arisen  from 
a  political  dispute  in  a  theatre. 

Early  in  the  morning,  without  the  knowledge  of  his  wife  and 
children,  Hamilton  crossed  the  Hudson  and  landed  beneath 
the  heights  of  Weehawken,  where  Burr  and  his  companions 
awaited  him.  Ten  paces  were  stepped  off,  and  pistols  handed 
to  the  combatants.  At  the  first  fire,  Hamilton  received  his 
death-wound.  Burr  and  his  accomplices  fled,  for  the  commu 
nity  branded  the  deed  as  that  of  murder.  So  great  was  the 
sensation  caused  throughout  the  country  by  this  lamentable 
event,  and  so  general  became  the  inquiry  as  to  the  propriety 
of  countenancing  so  foolish  a  thing  as  duelling,  that  the  prac 
tice  thenceforth  fell  very  much  into  disrepute. 

Formerly  the  wager  of  battle,  or  judicial  combat,  was  a  very 
common  method  for  asserting  one's  rights  or  redressing  grievances, 
it  being  superstitiously  believed  that  the  Almighty  would  favor  the 
arm  of  justice  in  all  such  contests.  But  the  custom  became  eventu 
ally  merely  a  bloody  method  of  obtaining  "  satisfaction"  for  insults 
or  injuries,  real  or  imaginary.  The  French  people,  in  times  past, 
have  been  especially  partial  to  duelling  ;  and  to  sudi  a  great  length 
was  the  practice  carried  in  the  reign  of  Henry  IV.  that  at  least  4000 
"  honorable  combatants"  (so-called)  perished  thereby. 

While  it  is  true  that  the  nation  at  large  was  shamed  at  this 
public  exhibition  of  the  enmity  of  two  prominent  citizens,  as 
well  as  appalled  at  the  sorrowful  result  of  their  method  of 
proving  the  right,  no  such  sentiment  was  apparent  respecting  a 


344  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES,  [1804 

dispute  which  prevailed  at  the  same  time  respecting  the  Med 
iterranean  state  of  TRIPOLI.  As  a  Roman  province,  Tripoli 
obtained  its  designation  from  the  fact  that  its  three  principal 
cities  (tri  poli)  were  leagued  together.  Of  one  of  these  cities 
the  emperor  Septimius  Severus  was  a  native.  In  common  with 
the  rest  of  north  Africa,  Tripoli  succumbed  to  the  Moham 
medan  sway,  and  in  the  i6th  century  became  a  part  of  the 
Turkish  empire.  The  inhabitants  of  the  coast,  acquiring  a 
taste  for  piratical  pursuits,  made  themselves  obnoxious  to 
maritime  nations  having  commerce  in  those  parts.  American 
merchant-vessels  had  suffered  from  these  depredations,  and 
their  crews  had  been  held  in  bondage. 

The  Tripolitan  government,  in  reply  to  the  remonstrance 
which  was  made,  demanded  the  payment  of  tribute.  This, 
the  United  States  refused  to  accede  to,  and,  not  thinking  it 
worth  while  to  parley  long  with  a  semi-barbarous,  non-christian 
nation,  despatched  three  armed  vessels  under  Commodore 
Dale,  to  the  Mediterranean.  These  blockaded  the  port  of 
Tripoli,  and  prevented  the  cruisers  from  leaving.  A  larger 
fleet  of  seven  sail,  under  Commodore  Preble,  also  proceeded 
to  the  same  locality  ;  but  one  of  the  frigates,  the  Philadelphia, 
ran  aground  in  the  harbor,  and,  being  captured  by  the  Tripoli- 
tans,  the  officers  and  crew  were  either  imprisoned  or  treated 
as  slaves.  The  vessel  was  soon  afterward  set  on  fire  and  de 
stroyed  by  a  small  force  under  Stephen  Decatur.  This  oc 
curred  early  in  the  year  1804. 

A  year  later,  William  Eaton,  who  had  held  the  post  of 
American  consul  at  Tunis,  obtained  permission  of  his  govern 
ment  to  participate  in  the  war.  He  took  command  of  several 
hundred  troops  raised  in  Egypt  by  Hamet,  an  older  and  ex 
pelled  brother  of  the  Pasha  of  Tripoli,  and  marched  with 
them  across  the  desert,  many  toilsome  leagues  to  the  seaport 
of  Derne.  This  Tripolitan  town  he  captured,  and,  receiving 
the  co-operation  of  the  fleet,  the  war  was  brought  to  a  close 


I8o7]  MACHINATIONS   OF  BURR.  345 

within  two  months.  An  exchange  of  prisoners  was  agreed 
upon ;  likewise  that  the  wife  and  children  of  Hamet  should 
be  given  up  to  him.  But  the  Americans,  having  accomplished 
their  object,  withdrew  any  further  support  of  Hamet's  rightful 
claim  to  the  governorship  of  the  province. 


MACHINATIONS   OF   BURR.     BERLIN   AND    MILAN   DECREES. 
THE   EMBARGO   ACT. 

At  the  autumn  election  of  1805,  Jefferson  was  a  second 
time,  and  by  a  large  majority,  elected  president.  GEORGE 
CLINTON,  of  New  York,  was  chosen  vice-president.  Aaron 
Burr,  disappointed  in  his  aspirations  for  office,  and  shunned 
as  a  murderer  by  many  of  his  countrymen,  now  began  to  de 
velop  his  innate  love  of  intrigue  in  a  manner  very  disturbing 
to  the  tranquillity  of  the  country.  He  conceived  the  nefarious 
design  of  attempting  the  conquest  of  Mexico,  purposing  the 
establishment  of  a  royal  government,  with  a  court  where  his 
daughter  Theodosia  might  preside,  and  her  little  son  figure  as 
the  heir-apparent  to  the  throne.  As  preliminary  to  the  main 
object  of  the  enterprise,  a  large  section  of  land  on  the  Washita 
river,  comprising  several  hundred  thousand  acres,  was  pur 
chased  as  a  rendezvous  for  Burr's  followers  in  case  the  scheme 
was  delayed,  and,  by  the  possession  of  which,  they  might  at 
least  be  temporarily  rewarded. 

Burr's  chief  coadjutor  was  Herman  Blennerhassett,  the  pro 
prietor  of  a  long  and  narrow  island  in  the  Ohio,  some  distance 
below  Marietta.  Upon  the  improvement  and  adornment  of 
this  romantic  island-domain,  Blennerhassett  had  expended  a 
considerable  fortune ;  and  now,  being  nearly  bankrupt,  his 
imagination  was  dazzled  by  the  adventurous  project  of  Burr, 
and  he  did  all  in  his  power  to  promote  it.  Barges  were  built 
at  Marietta  (1807),  and  bands  of  the  associate  marauders  were 
beginning  to  assemble,  when  the  undertaking  was  exposed, 
p* 


346  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES,  [r8o6 

and  Burr,  being  apprehended,  was  taken  to  Richmond  for 
trial  before  Chief-Justice  Marshall.  He  was  arraigned  on  the 
double  charge  of  a  misdemeanor  in  undertaking  to  make  war 
upon  the  dominions  of  the  king  of  Spain,  and  of  treason  in 
organizing  an  armed  force  for  the  purpose  of  seizing  New 
Orleans  and  of  separating  the  Western  from  the  Atlantic 
states.  Notwithstanding  there  was  no  doubt  whatever  in 
people's  minds  as  to  his  culpability,  he  was  released  upon  the 
ground  that  there  was  insufficient  evidence  to  warrant  a  con 
viction. 

Meanwhile,  the  war  which  was  raging  in  Europe,  had  resulted 
in  great  benefit  to  the  commerce  of  the  United  States,  whose 
interest  it  was  to  extend  the  privileges  of  neutrality,  and  thus 
to  reap  on  all  sides  a  rich  harvest  out  of  the  gains  of  the 
carrying  trade.  On  the  other  hand,  it  was  the  object  of 
part  of  the  contestants  to  contract  the  rights  claimed  by 
neutrals,  that  thereby  their  opponents  might  be  debarred  from 
the  "aid  and  comfort"  which,  to  a  certain  extent,  these 
neutrals  were  enabled  to  afford.  For,  although  articles  "  con 
traband  of  war,"  such  as  warlike  stores  and  weapons,  are  for 
bidden  by  the  Law  of  Nations  to  be  carried  in  neutral  vessels, 
yet  frequently,  equal  or  greater  aid  may  be  afforded,  by 
furnishing  other  products  specially  needed  by  either  of  the 
contestants. 

While  the  United  States,  having  thus  become  the  great 
neutral  trader  among  the  European  nations,  was  exulting  over 
the  flourishing  state  of  its  commerce,  the  British  government, 
in  the  spring  of  1806,  issued  a  declaration  that  all  the  ports 
and  rivers  from  the  port  of  Brest  in  France  to  the  river  Elbe 
in  Germany,  were  in  a  state  of  blockade  by  the  fleet  of  Eng 
land,  and  that  any  vessels  which  might  be  found  trading 
within  those  limits  would  be  liable  to  seizure  and  condemna 
tion.  In  a  few  months  Napoleon  retaliated  by  issuing  from 
Berlin  his  "Berlin  Decree,"  declaring  the  British  Islands 


iSoy'l  EMBARGO  ACT.  347 

themselves  in  a  state  of  blockade,  and  thus  forbidding  the 
Americans,  or  any  other  neutrals,  to  trade  therewith,  under  the 
same  penalty  as  the  foregoing. 

Next,  in  1807,  appeared  the  "British  Orders  in  Council," 
which  were  orders  not  promulgated,  as  was  customary,  by 
authority  of  parliament,  but  by  the  king's  privy  council  on 
its  own  responsibility.  Issued  in  retaliation  for  the  Berlin 
Decree,  they  prohibited  all  neutral  vessels  from  having  any 
intercourse  with  France  or  any  of  her  allies,  unless  they  first 
touched  at  some  British  port  and  paid  customs-dues  there. 
But  the  French  were  not  to  be  outdone  in  the  repayment  of 
injuries;  and  accordingly,  near  the  end  of  1807,  Napoleon 
published  his  "  Milan  Decree."  It  declared  not  only  the 
British  Islands,  but  also  all  of  the  British  dominions,  to  be  in 
a  state  of  blockade ;  and,  moreover,  forbade  all  countries 
trading  with  each  other  in  any  articles  of  English  manufacture. 
Furthermore,  any  vessel  of  a  neutral  nation  which  submitted 
to  being  searched  by  the  English,  would  be  liable  to  seizure 
and  condemnation,  the  same  as  though  it  was  actually  an 
English  vessel. 

To  prevent  the  wholesale  destruction  of  American  shipping 
which  must  follow  the  operation  of  the  foregoing  acts,  Con 
gress,  upon  the  recommendation  of  President  Jefferson,  laid 
an  embargo  on  all  the  merchant  vessels  of  the  country.  This 
was  also  intended  as  a  retaliatory  measure  against  the  bellig 
erents,  and  especially  against  British  manufacturers,  whose 
wares  at  that  time  of  war  were  largely  carried  to  the  ports  of 
other  neutral  nations  in  American  vessels. 

But  the  Embargo  Act  met  with  much  opposition,  particu 
larly  in  the  Atlantic  seaports,  whose  shippers  preferred  risking 
the  loss  of  their  vessels  to  being  debarred  from  trade  alto 
gether.  Necessarily,  great  loss  and  distress  were  entailed 
upon  the  farmers  and  planters,  the  home-market  being  soon 
supplied  at  low  rates,  while  the  excess  could  not  be  disposed 


343 


HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1807 


of;  and  since  the  demand  had  thus  so  greatly  fallen  off,  it 
resulted  that  a  great  many  people  were  deprived  of  employ 
ment.  Upon  the  cotton  planters  and  rice  producers,  the 
embargo  fell  heavily. 

Finally,  the  injury  being  so  apparent,  Congress,  in  1809, 
substituted  a  law  prohibiting  intercourse  with  Great  Britain 
and  France,  and  confiscating  any  vessels  of  those  countries 
(their  cargoes  included)  which  should  enter  United  States 
ports ;  with  a  proviso,  that  if  either  of  those  nations  would 
revoke  their  orders  or  decrees,  intercourse  with  such  nation 
would  at  once  be  resumed.  In  the  course  of  the  following 
year,  Napoleon  issued  still  a  third  edict,  called  the  "  Decree 
of  Rambouillet,"  confiscating  American  vessels  found  in 
French  ports ;  to  which  the  Americans  could  make  no  very 
great  objection,  as  it  was  of  a  like  nature  with  their  own  con 
fiscations  under  the  non-intercourse  act.  Immediately  after 
ward,  Napoleon  repealed  the  Milan  and  Berlin  decrees,  and 
accordingly  trade  with  France  was  resumed. 

Commerce  is,  or  ought  to  be,  a  great  conservator  of  international 
peace.  "  Commerce  has  no  country  but  the  world,  no  patriotism 
but  an  earnest  interest  in  the  well-being  of  all  the  nations.  Its 
genius  in  this  respect,  runs  parallel  with  the  genius  of  Christianity, 
though  in  a  lower  course — just  as  subterranean  rivers  run  parallel 
with  those  that  show  their  silver  currents  to  the  sun:  Commerce 
repudiates  war  as  an  outrage  upon  its  domain.  It  will  not  obey 
the  laws  of  war,  nor  recognize  any  nation  as  an  enemy  with  which 
it  has  or  may  have  intercourse."  (Burritt.) 

THE  RIGHT  OF   SEARCH. 

The  French  government  well  knew  of  Jefferson's  dislike  to 
England,  and  was  only  too  anxious  that  provocations  should 
arise  which  would  precipitate  the  United  States  into  a  war 
with  that  power.  It  was  the  hope  of  the  French  emperor 
that  if  the  British  government  now  refused  to  annul  its  edicts 


1807]  THE  RIGHT  OF  SEARCH.  349 

against  neutrals,  the  United  States  would  manifest  its  resent 
ment.  The  maxims  of  war  are  by  no  means  in  accord  with 
the  honorable  and  generous  feeling  which  teaches  us  to  "re 
joice  not  when  thine  enemy  falleth,  and  [to]  let  not  thine 
heart  be  glad  when  he  stumbleth;"  but  contrariwise,  suggest 
pleasure  and  stimulus  in  every  occasion  of  disaster  and  error. 
The  occasion  for  which  the  French  waited  was  even  then  op 
erating,  in  the  resentment  manifested  by  the  Americans  at 
the  right  which  the  British  claimed,  of  searching  American 
vessels  for  British  seamen. 

This  claim  of  the  right  of  impressment  was  complicated  by 
differences  in  the  laws  of  the  two  countries  upon  the  subject  of 
naturalization.  In  the  United  States  it  is  sufficient  for  this 
purpose  that  an  alien  should  have  resided  five  years  in  the 
country,  and  have  declared  before  a  magistrate  his  intention 
of  becoming  a  citizen ;  and  on  the  other  hand,  if  a  native- 
born  American  desires  to  be  adopted  as  the  citizen  of  another 
nation,  he  is  at  liberty  to  renounce  allegiance  to  the  land  of 
his  birth.  England,  however,  did  not  at  that  time  consider 
that  its  citizens  could  so  expatriate  themselves ;  but  that 
having  once  been  subjects  they  must  always  remain  so.  If, 
therefore,  the  British  government,  in  its  search  for  deserting 
seamen,  could  find  any  whom  it  could  show  had  been  born  in 
England  (notwithstanding  the  United  States  had  granted  them 
.  the  rights  of  citizenship),  they  became  liable  to  impressment 
into  the  British  service.  Considering  the  similarity  of  lan 
guage  and  appearance  between  the  people  of  the  two  nations, 
it  is  apparent  that  the  difficulties  in  the  way  of  identification 
were  indeed  great,  and,  without  exceeding  caution,  must  lead 
to  disputes  of  a  serious  character. 

Hitherto,  the  practice  of  searching  for  British  seamen  had 
been  confined  to  private  vessels ;  but,  in  the  summer  of  1807, 
the  American  frigate  Chesapeake  was  overhauled  off  the  ca^es 
of  Virginia  by  an  English  frigate,  the  Leopard,  and  four  sea- 

30 


35o  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1807 

men,  who  had  deserted  from  the  British  service,  were  ordered 
to  be  given  up.  The  American  commander  (Barren)  refusing 
the  demand,  the  Leopard  fired  a  broadside  into  the  Chesa 
peake,  when,  a  number  of  the  Americans  having  been  killed 
and  wounded,  the  requisition  was  acceded  to.  The  four  sea 
men  were  surrendered,  and  the  Leopard  proceeded  on  her 
course.  In  the  heat  of  the  excitement  produced  by  this  arbi 
trary  proceeding,  but  without  waiting  to  hear  what  the  Eng 
lish  government  had  to  say  about  the  matter,  Jefferson  issued 
a  proclamation  commanding  all  English  war-vessels  imme 
diately  to  leave  the  harbors  and  waters  of  the  United  States. 

Before  this  hostile  act  on  the  part  of  the  British  occurred, 
James  Monroe,  the  American  minister  at  London,  had  been 
endeavoring  to  negotiate  a  new  treaty  in  lieu  of  the  one  of 
1794.  The  latter,  Jefferson  strongly  disapproved  of,  because 
it  did  not  forbid  the  right  of  impressment.  The  British  gov 
ernment,  while  it  refused  to  make  an  express  declaration 
disclaiming  this  right,  professed  a  willingness  to  have  such  an 
understanding  upon  the  subject  as  would  place  it  "on  ground 
which  it  was  both  safe  and  honorable  for  the  United  States  to 
admit," — that  is,  that  the  right  should  not  be  taken  advantage 
of  except  very  cautiously,  and  in  such  cases  only  as  would  be 
satisfactory  to  both  parties.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that 
if  this  treaty  had  been  concluded,  the  War  of  1812  would  not 
have  occurred.  The  president  declined  to  submit  it  to  the 
Senate  for  ratification. 

Soon  after  the  news  of  the  affair  of  the  Leopard  and  Chesa 
peake  had  reached  England,  and  Monroe  had  made  formal 
complaint  concerning  it,  the  British  government  sent  an 
envoy  to  America  to  adjust  the  difficulty.  He  came  with 
instructions,  however,  that  before  anything  could  be  done,  Jef 
ferson  must  first  recall  his  proclamation.  The  envoy  stated  that 
the  fact  of  his  being  thus  sent  over  to  reconcile  the  difference 
was  evidence  of  the  amicable  disposition  of  his  government, 


1807]  THE   RIGHT  OF  SEARCH.  351 

and  therefore  that  the  president's  edict  against  the  British 
vessels,  which  had  been  issued  so  precipitately,  ought  not  to 
continue  in  force.  The  envoy  would  not  deviate  from  his 
instructions,  and  since  Jefferson  refused  to  comply  therewith, 
the  mission  of  the  British  minister  failed,  and  with  it  a  second 
opportunity  of  ending  the  difficulties. 

Although,  as  stated,  undue  precipitancy  had  been  exhibited 
by  the  United  States  with  respect  to  the  negotiations,  yet  no 
extenuation  is  intended  to  be  offered  for  the  manner  in  which 
the  British  government,  either  on  its  own  soil  or  upon  the 
high  seas,  enforced  the  harsh  provisions  of  its  law  of  impress 
ment.  This  law,  which  permitted  men  of  its  mercantile  ma 
rine  to  be  pressed  into  the  naval  service  upon  occasions  of 
urgency,  was  the  frequent  cause  of  very  great  distress  and 
hardship.  So  great  were  the  necessities  of  the  war  with  Na 
poleon,  that  press-gangs  were  constantly  occupied  in  securing 
recruits,  and  their  appearance  came  to  be  as  much  dreaded  as 
would  have  been  that  of  the  French  themselves.  Seafaring 
men,  and  sometimes  landsmen  as  well,  whose  homes  were  in 
the  coast-towns  of  Britain,  were  often  made  drunk  or  knocked 
down,  gagged,  bound  and  carried  on  board  war-ships  to  serve 
for  five  years  or  more,  without  pretence  of  right.  A  British 
privateer,  encountering  a  war-ship  flying  the  flag  of  the  same 
nation,  would  crowd  all  sail  to  effect  its  escape,  lest  part  of  the 
crew  should  be  summarily  impressed  into  the  regular  service. 
Therefore,  as  the  navy  rather  than  the  army  of  Britain  was  her 
chief  dependence,  it  will  be  perceived  that,  to  maintain  its 
efficiency,  she  was  not  always  scrupulous  to  respect  the  rights 
either  of  her  own  subjects  or  those  of  her  late  dependencies. 


CHAPTER    XXVI. 

WAR  WITH   ENGLAND   DURING  MADISON'S   ADMINIS 
TRATION. 

1809— -1817. 


NEGOTIATIONS  WITH   ENGLAND.    TECUMSEH. 

IN  the  spring  of  1809,  James  Madison,  of  Virginia,  who 
had  been  Jefferson's  secretary  of  state  during  both  his  terms 
of  office,  succeeded  to  the  presidency  in  accordance  with  the 
popular  verdict.  The  new  administration  began  auspiciously, 
for,  in  the  month  succeeding  Madison's  inauguration,  an 
agreement  was  made  with  David  Erskine,  the  British  minister 
at  Washington,  that  if  his  government  would  repeal  its  ob 
noxious  Orders  in  Council,  the  non-intercourse  act  would  be 
revoked  on  the  part  of  the  United  States.  This  was  mutually 
assented  to,  and  proclamation  was  immediately  made  by  the 
president  to  that  effect. 

But,  unfortunately,  Erskine  had  exceeded  his  instructions, 
having  no  power  to  make  such  a  treaty  without  the  ratification 
of  his  government,  which  accordingly  disavowed  his  act. 
Francis  J.  Jackson  was  sent  hither  to  supersede  him.  Instead 
of  endeavoring  calmly  and  candidly  to  adjust  the  real  diffi 
culties  at  issue,  a  fruitless  correspondence  ensued  between 
Jackson  and  our  secretary  of  state,  as  to  the  extent  of  the 
powers  with  which  Erskine  had  been  invested.  Jackson 
having  twice  intimated  that  the  American  government  knew 
that  Erskine  was  exceeding  his  powers,  the  secretary  refused 
352 


i8ii]  NEGOTIATIONS    WITH  ENGLAND.  353 

further  correspondence,  and  the  minister  was  dismissed. 
The  newspapers  accusing  him  of  insulting  the  government, 
the  popular  resentment  was  roused  to  such  a  degree  that  it 
was  considered  hardly  safe  for  him  to  travel  through  the 
country. 

Thus  were  the  purposes  of  peace  a  third  time  defeated,  and 
the  happiness  of  a  nation  of  seven  million  people  again  put 
in  jeopardy  because  of  a  misapprehension,  which,  it  must  be 
admitted,  was  of  comparatively  little  importance.  The  con 
troversy  in  regard  to  the  Chesapeake  was,  however,  adjusted 
in  1811,  four  years  after  the  occurrence;  the  British  govern 
ment  agreeing  to  make  reparation  to  the  families  of  the  sea 
men  who  were  killed  and  wounded,  and  to  restore  the  two 
sailors  (surviving  of  the  four)  who  had  been  taken.  But  the 
good  effect  of  this  adjustment  was  neutralized  by  another 
exciting  and  disastrous  naval  encounter,  namely,  that  between 
the  American  frigate  President  and  the  British  sloop-of-war 
Little  Belt.  Like  the  first,  it  occurred  off  the  Virginia  capes  ; 
the  British  vessel  was  disabled,  and  32  of  her  men  killed 
and  wounded. 

In  the  year  1811,  there  arose  into  prominence  the  cele 
brated  Indian  chief  and  orator,  TECUMSEH,  of  the  tribe  of 
the  Shawnees.  He  and  his  brother  the  "Prophet,"  had  set 
tled  on  the  Wabash  river,  in  the  land  of  the  Miamis,  upon  a 
tract  which  the  latter  nation  at  this  time  ceded  to  the  United 
States.  Tecumseh  declared  the  transfer  was  not  good  with 
out  his  consent,  and  that  the  acquiescence  of  all  the  chiefs  of 
the  tribes  of  the  Ohio  and  the  Lakes'  was  essential  to  make  a 
valid  title.  In  a  council  held  with  General  HARRISON,  gov 
ernor  of  the  Indiana  Territory,  the  chief  insisted  upon  retain 
ing  the  land  ;  to  which  the  governor  replied  that  his  words 
would  be  reported  to  the  president,  and  that  he  was  confident 
the  land  would  not  be  relinquished  by  his  government,  but 
would  be  maintained  by  the  sword. 

30* 


354  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.'          [1812 

Aided  by  the  wily  representations  of  the  Prophet,  who, 
pretending  to  a  direct  commission  from  the  Great  Spirit,  ex 
ercised  a  remarkable  influence  even  over  distant  tribes,  Te- 
cumseh  was  enabled  to  gather  a  large  force  on  the  banks  of 
the  Wabash  river,  near  its  confluence  with  the  Tippecanoe. 
Here,  in  the  absence  of  their  chief,  the  Indians  were  met 
by  a  body  of  troops  led  against  them  by  Governor  Harri 
son.  The  Prophet  assumed  command  of  the  natives,  not  in 
deed  by  mingling  in  the  encounter,  but  by  the  performance 
of  conjurations  on  an  eminence  near  the  battle-ground.  But 
the  jugglery  failed  of  its  intended  effects,  for  the  Indians, 
though  they  inflicted  some  loss  upon  the  whites,  were  obliged 
to  retreat. 

In  the  following  year  (1812)  Fort  Harrison  on  the  Wabash, 
was  besieged  by  Tecumseh's  bands.  Governor  Shelby,  of 
Kentucky,  issued  a  call  for  volunteers,  who,  uniting  with 
those  raised  in  the  Indiana  and  Illinois  territories,  relieved 
the  fort,  and  thence  started  on  an  expedition  to  destroy  the 
villages  of  the  Kickapoos  and  Peorias.  The  Indians  being 
closely  pursued,  set  fire  to  the  long,  dry  prairie  grass,  so  that 
the  flames  advancing  rapidly  with  the  wind  toward  the  militia, 
threatened  them  with  destruction ;  but  by  employing  the  de 
vice  of  the  "back-fire,"  often  resorted  to  on  the  prairies 
during  such  perils,  they  escaped  the  danger.  The  militia  and 
most  of  the  officers  becoming  dissatisfied  with  the  expedition, 
notified  the  commanding  general  that  they  would  go  no 
farther,  and,  despite  his  orders,  they  returned  home.  A  suc 
ceeding  expedition,  however,  a  few  weeks  later,  was  success 
ful  in  destroying  the  Prophet's  town  and  a  Kickapoo  village. 
In  the  war  which  now  began  with  the  English,  Tecumseh, 
taking  part  with  the  latter,  was  made  a  general,  and  was  in 
strumental  in  rendering  them  important  service. 


I8i2]  WAR  DECLARED.  355 

1812.    WAR   DECLARED.     DETROIT   AND    NIAGARA.     OPPOSITION 
TO   THE   WAR. 

War  was  formally  declared  against  Great  Britain  by  the 
president,  the  i8th  day  of  6th  month  (June),  1812  ;  but  the 
vote  by  which  the  measure  passed  Congress  was  far  from 
unanimous,  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  members  giving  their 
voice  in  its  favor. 

Although  the  commercial  losses  of  the  country  consequent 
upon  the  Orders  in  Council  and  the  Decrees,  had  been  very 
great — as  many  as  900  vessels  having  been  condemned  within 
the  preceding  eight  years — yet  the  national  debt  by  reason  of 
economy  in  the  administration,  had  been  reduced  one-half. 
This  reduction  was  especially  owing  to  the  curtailment  of  the 
army  and  navy;  the  army  in  1808,  being  composed  of  but  3000 
men.  The  same  year,  however,  it  was  ordered  to  be  increased 
to  9000,  and  afterward  to  25,000.  This  did  not  include  the 
militia  of  the  states,  which  the  president  was  authorized  to 
call  upon  to  the  extent  of  100,000  men.  General  DEARBORN 
was.  appointed  commander-in -chief. 

Only  five  days  after  the  declaration  of  war,  the  British  gov 
ernment,  unaware  of  the  promulgation  of  that  hostile  decree, 
repealed  its  Orders  in  Council.  The  real  reason  for  the  revoca 
tion,  was  the  continued  interdiction  of  American  commerce 
with  England.  The  loss  of  the  promising  trade  with  this 
country,  added  to  the  onerous  burden  of  taxation  imposed  to 
carry  on  the  continental  wars,  produced  a  degree  of  distress 
in  the  British  manufacturing  districts,  which  was  becoming 
almost  intolerable.  Apprehensive  of  the  still  greater  miseries 
which  must  ensue  if  an  American  war  really  occurred,  the 
manufacturers  raised  their  voices  in  protest,  and  the  Orders  in 
Council  were  finally  annulled,— but,  as  we  have  seen,  a  few 
days  too  late  to  arrest  the  whirlwind  of  war. 

The  contest  began  with  but  little  enthusiasm,  for  many  of 


356  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1812 

the  American  people  believed  that  the  aggressions  of  France 
had  been  equally  as  great  as  those  of  England,  and,  that  either 
there  should  have  been  no  fighting  at  all,  or  that  France  also 
should  have  been  declared  an  enemy. 

The  first  movements  of  the  American  army  proved  signally 
disastrous.  General  HULL,  the  governor  of  Michigan  terri 
tory,  had  command  at  Detroit  of  about  2000  troops.  Upon 
the  Canada  side  of  the  Detroit  river,  where  its  waters  flow 
into  Lake  Erie,  was  the  British  fort  at  Maiden.  Hull  crossed 
the  river,  and  was  about  to  attack  the  fort,  when  he  became 
alarmed  at  some  successes  of  the  Indians  under  Tecumseh ; 
and,  having  heard  also  of  the  arrival  of  General  Brock,  the 
British  commander,  concluded  to  retire  again  to  Detroit. 
Here,  being  quickly  besieged  by  Brock's  forces,  and  doubting 
his  ability  to  make  a  successful  resistance,  fearful  also  of  an 
Indian  massacre,  Hull  agreed  to  a  capitulation,  8th  month 
(August)  1 6th. 

At  Niagara,  a  body  of  regular  troops  and  of  New  York  state 
militia  under  General  Van  Rensselaer,  crossed  the  Niagara 
river,  purposing  an  invasion  of  Canada.  They  advanced  a 
few  miles,  as  far  as  the  heights  of  Queenstown,  but,  un 
able  to  withstand  the  onset  of  the  British  and  Indians,  were 
forced  to  surrender.  Brock,  the  British  commander,  was 
killed  in  the  engagement.  Van  Rensselaer's  successor  re 
newed  the  attempt  at  invasion,  but  the  movement  only  resulted 
in  another  capitulation.  Upon  the  ocean,  however,  the  navy  of 
the  Americans  met  with  several  successes.  The  chief  of  these 
were  the  capture  of  the  British  frigate  Guerriere,  off  the  banks 
of  Newfoundland,  by  the  American  frigate  Constitution  com 
manded  by  Captain  Hull;  the  capture  of  the  Macedonian,  a 
British  frigate,  by  Commodore  Decatur's  vessel  the  United 
States,  near  the  Azores ;  and  also,  off  the  coast  of  Brazil,  the 
capture  of  the  British  frigate  Java  by  the  Constitution,  then 
in  command  of  Commodore  Bainbridge. 


i Si 2]  THE    WAR    OPPOSED.  3-7 

Large  numbers  of  vessels,  owned  by  private  individuals,  were 
likewise  fitted  out  to  depredate  upon  the  commerce,  and  to  contend 
with  the  navy  of  Britain.  During  the  year  1812,  about  250  British 
vessels  and  3000  prisoners  were  taken  by  the  American  privateers. 
These  vessels,  which  sailed  under  the  sanction  of  the  government, 
were  provided  with  letters  of  marqite,  or,  commissions  to  make  war 
upon  and  seize  the  property  of  their  enemies.  An  act  of  war  by  a 
private  vessel,  without  such  a  commission,  was  held  to  be  piracy  ; 
but  in  1856,  by  the  treaty  of  Paris,  privateering  itself  was  declared 
to  be  an  offence  against  the  law  of  nations,  and  was  thereupon  abol 
ished.  The  United  States,  however,  was  not  a  party  to  that  treaty. 

Much  opposition  to  the  prosecution  of  the  war  was  mani 
fested  during  the  year.  By  the  Connecticut  assembly  a  dec 
laration  was  passed  that  "  they  believe  it  to  be  the  deliberate 
and  solemn  sense  of  the  people  of  these  states,  that  the  war  was 
unnecessary  ;"  and,  referring  to  the  disposition  to  attempt  the 
conquest  of  Canada,  that  "  a  spirit  of  acquisition  and  exten 
sion  of  territory  appears  to  influence  the  councils  of  the  na 
tion."  Requisitions  being  made  by  the  president  upon  the 
governors  of  Massachusetts  and  Connecticut,  to  furnish  their 
quotas  of  militia,  and  to  have  them  placed  under  regular 
officers  of  the  army,  objection  was  made  that,  although  power 
is  given  by  the  constitution  to  Congress  to  call  out  the  militia 
of  a  state,  in  cases  of  insurrection  or  invasion,  yet  no  such 
exigency  of  fnvasion  as  yet  existed.  They  also  objected,  that 
the  men  would  be  deprived  of  their  constitutional  right  to 
be  commanded  by  their  own  officers,  and,  being  placed  under 
the  control  of  officers  of  the  regular  army,  would  be  liable 
to  be  shut  up  in  garrisons  or  sent  out  of  the  state  to  distant 
points  of  military  operations,  such  as  the  attempted  conquest 
of  Canada,  or  wheresoever  the  president  or  General  Dearborn 
might  see  fit  to  designate.  The  seacoast,  they  said,  would 
then  be  undefended  and  their  ports  exposed  to  the  depreda 
tions  of  the  English  navy. 

This  controversy  was  morally  valuable  for  two  reasons,  to 


358  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1813 

wit :  in  manifesting  the  repugnance  of  the  people  to  a  large 
standing  army ;  and  also,  as  exhibiting  a  cautious  disposition 
against  readily  furnishing  troops  upon  calls  of  exigency,  which 
might  be  wrongfully  used  for  purposes  of  ambition,  despotism 
or  conquest. 

1813.      OPERATIONS  ON   THE   CANADA   FRONTIER.       RED    JACKET 
AND    CORNPLANTER.     CREEK    WAR. 

The  election  of  James  Madison  to  a  second  presidential 
term,  indicated  that,  unpopular  as  the  war  was  in  some  quar 
ters,  it  was  the  wish  of  the  majority  that  it  should  be  contin 
ued.  In -the  beginning  of  the  year  the  army  was  disposed  in 
three  divisions :  the  westernmost,  under  General  Harrison, 
was  near  the  west  end  of  Lake  Erie ;  the  centre,  under  Dear 
born,  was  at  the  east  end  of  the  lake ;  while  the  third,  com 
manded  by  General  HAMPTON,  was  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Lake  Champlain. 

In  the  latter  part  of  the  First  month,  at  a  time  of  severe 
cold  and  when  the  ground  was  covered  with  snow,  a  detach 
ment  of  Harrison's  force  under  General  Winchester,  was  sur 
prised  at  Frenchtown,  on  the  river  Raisin,  by  a  party  of  British 
under  Colonel  Proctor,  assisted  by  a  thousand  Indians  led  by 
Roundhead,  a  Wyandotte  chief.  Winchester  was  taken  pris 
oner  by  Roundhead  himself;  but  his  men  having  laid  down 
their  arms,  many  of  the  wounded,  in  the  absence  of  Proctor, 
were  massacred  by  the  Indians,  and  the  village  set  on  fire. 

In  the  spring,  Proctor  advanced  against  Fort  Meigs  at  the 
rapids  of  the  Miami,  where  Harrison  was  posted ;  but, 
although  several  hundred  Americans  were  killed  in  an  am 
buscade  laid  for  them  by  Tectimseh,  the  British  commander 
failed  to  secure  possession  of  the  fort,  and  retreated  to  his 
headquarters  at  Maiden,  on  the  Canada  side  of  the  Detroit 
river. 

The  confederacy  of  the  Six  Nations  and  some  other  tribes 


1813]  RED   JACKET  AND   CORNPLANTER.  359 

of  Indians,  took  part  with  the  Americans  in  their  contest  with 
the  British.  Prominent  in  the  councils  of  the  Senecas,  were 
the  chiefs  RED  JACKET  and  CORNPLANTER.  Red  Jacket,  who 
was  renowned  for  his  oratory,  resided  near  Buffalo.  His  best 
known  speech  was  one  delivered  several  years  previous  to  the 
war,  upon  the  occasion  of  the  visit  of  a  missionary,  who  de 
sired  a  conference  of  the  chiefs  and  warriors.  In  narrating 
their  grievances  at  the  hands  of  the  whites,  Red  Jacket  said — 
"  Wars  took  place,  Indians  were  hired  to  fight  against  Indians, 
and  many  of  our  people  were  destroyed.  They  also  brought 
strong  liquors  among  us :  it  was  strong  and  powerful  and  has 
slain  thousands."  And  in  dismissing  the  missionary,  he  said: 
"Brother,  we  have  been  told  that  you  have  been  preaching 
to  white  people  in  this  place  :  these  people  are  our  neighbors 
— we  are  acquainted  with  them — we  will  wait  a  little  while 
and  see  what  effect  your  preaching  has  upon  them.  If  we  find 
it  does  them  good,  makes  them  honest  and  less  disposed  to 
cheat  Indians,  we  will  then  consider  again  what  you  have 
said." 

When,  in  1813,  Red  Jacket  concluded  to  take  up  the  hatchet,  he 
told  the  American  agent  that  it  was  only  to  defend  their  homes  in 
a  contest,  with  the  bringing  on  of  which  the  Indians  had  nothing  to 
do.  In  after  life  this  celebrated  chief,  who  had  once  been  noted  for 
the  dignity  of  his  presence  and  his  eloquence  and  wisdom  in  council, 
became  a  drunken  sot,  remaining  to  the  last  opposed  to  the  preach 
ing  of  Christianity  to  his  nation. 

Cornplanter,  who  was  a  half-breed,  was  of  a  more  peaceable 
disposition  than  Red  Jacket,  his  rival.  Devoting  himself  to 
labors  for  the  benefit  of  his  people,  he  took  no  active  part  in 
the  war.  Unlike  Red  Jacket,  while  he  deplored  the  evils  of 
intemperance,  he  was  not  himself  overcome  by  the  thirst  for 
strong  drink.  On  the  contrary,  he  exerted  himself  to  suppress 
its  use,  and  therein  was  a  good  example  to  his  followers,  as  he 
was  never  known  to  have  been  intoxicated.  Furthermore,  he 


36o  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1813 

was  a  total  abstainer.  "The  Great  Spirit,"  he  said,  "has 
ordered  me  to  quit  drinking  any  intoxicating  drink."  He 
encouraged  the  benevolent  efforts  of  the  missionaries  among 
his  people,  yet  made  no  profession  of  Christianity,  probably 
having  more  regard  for  the  civilizing  effects  of  the  white  man's 
mode  of  living  than  for  any  looked-for  good  through  change 
of  heart.  He  stumbled  at  a  religion  which  professed  to  be  a 
peaceful  one,  while  it  apparently  permitted  the  brethren  to 
shed  each  others'  blood. 

Cornplanter  received  an  allotment  of  land  on  the  upper  Alleghany, 
just  south  of  the  New  York  border,  where  he  built  a  village  and 
followed  the  pursuits  of  agricultural  life.  H.e  attained  the  ripe  age 
of  one  hundred  years.  "It  was  gratifying  to  notice,"  said  a  visitor 
in  1816,  "the  agricultural  habits  of  the  place,  and  the  numerous 
enclosures  of  buckwheat,  corn  and  oats.  We  saw  also  a  number 
of  oxen,  cows  and  horses,  and  many  logs  designed  for  the  saw-mill 
and  the  Pittsburg  market."  The  reservations  of  the  Senecas  are 
still  extant,  and  have  long  been  evidence  that  the  aboriginal  Indian 
life  is  susceptible  of  radical  alteration  and  improvement. 

The  operations  of  Harrison  and  Proctor,  in  the  locality  of 
Detroit,  have  already  been  alluded  to.  General  Dearborn, 
about  the  same  time,  made  an  effort  to  invade  Canada,  having 
landed  a  small  army  at  York  (now  Toronto)  on  the  northern 
shore  of  Lake  Ontario.  But  the  attempt  at  invasion  proving 
unsuccessful,  the  troops  returned  to  Niagara.  Another  expe 
dition,  which  proceeded  from  Sackett's  Harbor,  at  the  eastern 
end  of  the  lake,  likewise  failed  in  an  attempt  to  reach  Mont 
real.  The  British  general,  PREVOST,  relieved  of  the  fear  of 
attack,  then  advanced  on  Niagara,  captured  the  place,  and, 
in  retaliation  for  the  burning  of  a  Canada  village  by  the 
Americans,  despoiled  the  country  around  the  fort  for  several 
miles,  and  laid  several  settlements  in  ashes.  One  of  these  was 
BUFFALO,  then  a  mere  village. 

On  Lake  Erie,  the  American   fleet  of  nine  vessels,   com- 


1813]  BATTLE    OF  LAKE  ERIE.  361 

manded  by  Commodore  Perry,  engaged  and  captured,  pth 
month  (September)  roth,  the  British  squadron  of  nearly  equal 
force,  after  a  severe  conflict  of  three  hours.  This  result  gave 
the  Americans  entire  control  of  the  lake,  and  consequently 
afforded  them  ready  entrance  into  Canada.  Harrison  at  once 
occupied  Maiden  and  Detroit,  and  advancing  into  Canada  as 
far  as  the  Moravian  village  on  the  Thames,  a  distance  of  80 
miles,  gave  battle  to  the  forces  of  Proctor  and  Tecumseh. 
The  scene  of  this  engagement  was  a  swamp  near  the  river, 
skirted  by  a  thick  woodland.  The  ground  was  well-chosen 
for  the  display  of  Indian  tactics,  but  Tecumseh  having  received 
his  death-wound  while  the  battle  was  at  its  height,  his  warriors 
fled,  and  were  followed  by  such  of  the  British  as  could  elude 
capture.  The  Ottawas,  Miamis  and  several  other  tribes,  dis 
heartened  at  the  death  of  their  great  chieftain,  entered  into  a 
treaty  of  peace  and  alliance  with  General  Harrison. 

On  the  ocean,  there  were  several  severe  naval  encounters,  the 
earliest  of  which  was  that  between  the  American  ship  Hornet, 
commanded  by  Captain  Lawrence,  and  the  British  war-sloop 
Peacock.  The  latter  vessel  was  captured,  but  it  sank  while 
the  wounded  were  being  removed.  Lawrence  being  afterward 
placed  in  command  of  the  frigate  Chesapeake,  sailed  out  of 
Boston  harbor  in  chase  of  the  British  frigate  Shannon.  The 
Chesapeake  proving  to  be  no  match  for  its  opponent,  was 
obliged  to  surrender.  Lawrence  and  most  of  his  officers  were 
killed.  In  the  Irish  sea,  the  American  sloop-of-war  Argus, 
was  captured  by  the  British  sloop  Pelican,  the  commander  of 
the  former  being  mortally  wounded.  Finally,  off  Portland 
harbor,  two  hostile  brigs,  the  Enterprise  and  Boxer,  came 
into  fierce  collision,  and,  both  commanders  having  been 
killed,  the  British  vessel  (the  Boxer)  surrendered.  Of  these 
two  commanders  who  went  down  to  death  together,  each 
guilty  of  the  other's  blood,  an  account  says  that  "their  bodies 
were  received  at  Portland  with  tokens  of  the  highest  respect." 
Q  31 


362  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1814 

What  a  mockery  of  the  divine-given  precept  to  "Love  your 
enemies,"  seems  the  bestowal  of  such  honor  as  this ! 

In  the  meantime,  troubles  arose  with  the  Creek  Indians 
inhabiting  the  territory  of  the  Alabama.  None  of  the  Indian 
tribes  was  more  advanced  in  civilization  than  was  this  nation. 
They  were  estimated  to  number  25,000  persons,  and  were 
mostly  engaged  in  the  pursuits  of  agriculture,  being  also  skilled 
in  weaving  and  in  some  of  the  simpler  sorts  of  handicraft. 
Animated  by  the  bad  counsels  of  one  of  their  number,  called 
WEATHERFORD,  they  followed  the  example  of  Tecumseh  in  a 
hopeless  attempt  to  rid  their  country  of  the  whites.  Their 
first  serious  onslaught  was  directed  against  Fort  Mimms,  sit 
uated  in  the  Tensau  district,  north  of  the  gulf  of  Mobile. 
The  Creek  warriors,  entering  the  open  gate  of  the  fort,  which 
had  been  left  unguarded,  were  met  by  the  garrison,  when  a 
terrible  scene  of  confusion  and  carnage  ensued.  Knives, 
tomahawks,  swords  and  bayonets,  did  their  deadly  work,  until 
only  17  out  of  the  275  persons  within  the  works  remained 
alive.  Of  those  who  were  killed,  many  were  women  and 
children. 

"Blood  for  blood"  was  the  cry  that  arose  when  the  news 
of  this  massacre  was  received.  Troops  from  Tennessee, 
Georgia  and  Mississippi,  under  Generals  Jackson,  Coffee  and 
others,  were  quickly  on  the  march  toward  the  Alabama  country. 
Battles  were  fought  at  Talladega,  Autossee,  and  other  places, 
all  of  which  resulted  in  the  discomfiture  of  the  Indians,  until 
finally,  in  the  spring  of  1814,  they  made  a  stand  at  Tohopeka 
— called  by  the  whites  the  "Horse-shoe  Bend"  of  the  Tal- 
lapoosa.  It  is  north-east  of  the  present  city  of  Montgomery. 
The  Indians,  about  a  thousand  in  number,  had  thrown  up  a 
breastwork  across  the  entrance  to  the  peninsula.  But  Jack 
son  was,  as  he  wrote,  "determined  to  exterminate  them," 
and,  having  surrounded  the  bend  with  a  cavalry  force  so  that 
none  of  them  could  escape  by  crossing  the  river,  he  com- 


i8i4]  BATTLES  NEAR  NIAGARA.  363 

manded  the  breast-work  to  be  stormed.  The  resistance  of 
the  Indians  proving  ineffectual,  their  extermination  began  : 
550  were  killed  on  the  peninsula,  and  many  who  endeavored 
to  cross  the  river  were  shot  down  by  the  mounted  troops,  so 
that  it  was  not  believed  that  more  than  20  of  the  warriors 
escaped.  "  We  continued,"  wrote  Jackson,  in  his  report, 
"  to  destroy  many  who  had  concealed  themselves  under  the 
banks  of  the  river,  until  we  were  prevented  by  night:  this 
morning  we  killed  16  who  had  been  concealed."  The  Creek 
nation  made  peace,  according  to  the  terms  dictated  by  their 
conquerors,  ceding  the  larger  part  of  their  territory  to  the 
United  States.  General  Jackson  was  rewarded  by  receiving 
the  appointment  of  commander  of  the  forces  at  New  Orleans. 

1814.      BATTLES   NEAR  NIAGARA  AND   PLATTSBURG.     WASHING 
TON   CITY  TAKEN.     HARTFORD    CONVENTION. 

The  downfall  of  Napoleon  and  the  partial  pacification  of  Eu 
rope,  enabled  the  British  government  to  detach  a  greater  force 
than  previously,  for  the  protection  of  Canada:  consequently, 
in  the  beginning  of  1814,  an  army  of  14,000  men  who  had 
fought  with  Wellington  in  Spain,  was  embarked  at  Bordeaux, 
to  join  the  army  gf  Sir  George  Prevost  in  Canada.  The 
English  naval  force  was  likewise  increased,  and  was  ordered 
to  effectually  blockade  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  Republic,  and 
to  devastate  the  sea-coast  cities  as  occasion  should  permit. 

In  the  yth  month  (July)  an  American  army  of  3500  men 
under  General  Brown,  crossed  the  Niagara  river,  and  obtained 
possession  of  the  British  post  of  Fort  Erie.  The  Americans 
then  advanced  along  the  west  bank  of  the  Niagara  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Chippewa  river,  where  they  encountered  a  strong  force 
of  the  British,  commanded  by  General  Rial!.  The  battle  of 
Chippewa,  which  ensued,  terminated  in  favor  of  the  Ameri 
cans,  the  British  commander  being  obliged  to  fall  back  until 


364  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1814 

he  reached  Fort  George,  where  he  was  reinforced  by  General 
Drummond.  His  army  then  amounting  to  5000  men,  Riall 
advanced  to  Queenstown  and  thence  to  Lundy's  Lane,  where 
a  hard-fought  battle  took  place,  in  which  the  thunder  of  artil 
lery,  the  curses  of  the  combatants,  the  shrieks  and  groans  of 
the  wounded  and  dying,  mingled  with  the  roar  of  the  adjacent 
cataract.  Finally,  the  Americans,  after  great  sacrifice  of  life, 
obtained  possession  of  an  important  fortified  eminence,  and 
being  successful  in  other  directions,  obliged  their  opponents 
to  give  way.  The  British  generals  Riall  and  Drummond, 
were  both  wounded ;  so  also,  on  the  side  of  the  Americans, 
were  Generals  Brown  and  WINFIELD  SCOTT,  beside  over  fifty 
of  their  officers.  The  command  of  the  American  army  then 
devolved  upon  General  Ripley,  who  retreated  to  Fort  Erie. 
The  British  endeavored  to  dislodge  the  Americans  from  the 
fort,  but  the  attempt  did  not  succeed. 

While  these  active  operations  were  transpiring  along  the 
Niagara  river,  Prevost  with  a  formidable  army  had  invaded 
the  territory  of  the  United  States,  and,  marching  down  the 
west  side  of  Lake  Champlain,  had  laid  siege  to  Plattsburg. 
Before  attempting  to  capture  the  place,  Prevost  awaited  the 
result  of  the  contest  between  the  British  and  American  squad 
rons,  both  of  which  had  taken  positions  in  Plattsburg  bay. 
The  British  fleet  was  commanded  by  Commodore  Downie,  the 
American  by  Commander  Macdonough.  The  engagement, 
which  happened  pth  month  (September)  nth,  resulted  in  the 
defeat  and  capture  of  the  British  vessels ;  whereupon  Prevost 
withdrew  his  army  from  before  Plattsburg,  and,  leaving  be 
hind  him  a  large  quantity  of  military  stores,  retreated  hastily 
into  Canada. 

Farther  to  the  eastward,  however,  the  governor  of  New 
Brunswick  had  invaded  the  district  of  Maine  (which  was  yet 
an  appendage  of  Massachusetts)  and,  aided  by  a  British  fleet, 
had  taken  possession  of  the  country  as  far  as  the  Penobscot 


1814]  WASHINGTON  CITY  TAKEN.   ^  365 

river.  Another  British  fleet  also  appeared  on  the  Connecticut 
coast,  but  their  predatory  attempts  did  not  meet  with  much 
success. 

A  far  more  formidable  invasion  occurred  at  the  southward, 
having  for  its  initial  object  the  capture  of  the  national  capital. 
One  part  of  the  British  fleet  ascended  the  Potomac,  but  the  main 
portion,  under  Admiral  COCHRANE,  proceeded  up  the  Patuxent. 
The  Americans  burnt  all  but  one  of  their  squadron  of  17 
vessels,  to  prevent  their  falling  into  the  hands  of  the  invaders. 
At  Bladensburg,  the  militia  under  General  Winder,  unavail- 
ingly  disputed  the  advance  of  the  British. 

On  the  evening  of  the  24th  day  of  8th  month  (August),  the 
British  army  under  General  Ross  entered  Washington.  The 
Capitol,  the  president's  house  and  other  public  buildings  and 
works,  were  committed  to  the  flames.  But,  meeting  with  no 
display  of  royalist  sentiment  on  the  part  of  the  populace,  Ross 
evacuated  the  city  the  next  day,  and  re-embarked  on  the  fleet 
in  the  Patuxent.  Designing  to  attack  Baltimore,  Cochrane's 
fleet  sailed  up  the  Chesapeake  to  North  Point,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  Patapsco,  where  Ross'  troops  were  again  landed,  and 
marched  toward  the  city.  In  a  skirmish  which  ensued  the 
British  general  was  killed.  The  admiral,  finding  that  the  en 
trance  to  the  harbor  was  obstructed  by  sunken  vessels,  while 
Fort  McHenry  resisted  his  efforts  at  capture,  gave  the  com 
mand  to  retire. 

Of  several  naval  encounters  which  occurred  during  the  year, 
the  most  important  was  that  between  the  American  frigate 
Essex,  commanded  by  Commodore  Porter,  and  the  British 
frigate  Phebe.  The  former  vessel  had  proved  very  destructive 
to  British  commerce,  but  was  at  last  blockaded  in  the  port  of 
Valparaiso.  Having  been  detained  several  weeks,  Porter  en 
deavored  to  make  his  escape,  but  the  Phebe  and  another  vessel 
disputing  the  attempt,  a  fierce  contest  ensued.  Finally  the 
Essex  caught  fire  and  part  of  the  ammunition  exploded ;  when, 


HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1814 

the  larger  part  of  the  crew  being  killed  or  wounded,  Porter 
surrendered. 

As  the  war  between  the  United  States  and  Great  Britain 
grew  out  of  the  great  European  quarrel,  it  was  not  believed 
that  it  would  continue  long  after  the  European  powers  had 
made  peace.  Indeed,  as  early  as  the  spring  of  1813,  Alexan 
der,  the  emperor  of  Russia,  had  offered  to  mediate  between 
the  two  countries.  The  United  States  government,  accepting 
the  offer,  had  sent  three  commissioners— John  Quincy  Adams, 
Albert  Gallatin  and  James  A.  Bayard — to  negotiate  with  those 
to  be  appointed  by  England ;  but  the  latter  power  preferred 
that  their  commissioners  should  treat  directly  with  the  com 
missioners  of  the  Republic,  without  the  intervention  of  Russia, 
and  accordingly  it  was  agreed  that  negotiations  should  be 
entered  into  at  Ghent. 

But  as  that  year  and  the  next  wore  away  without  anything 
being  accomplished,  .the  discontent  of  the  opposition  party 
in  the  United  States  increased.  This  opposition,  as  already 
intimated,  was  greatest  in  the  New  England  states,  whose 
capitalists,  perceiving  no  necessity  for  the  war,  refused  to  loan 
their  money  for  its  prosecution,  and  were  hence  accused  of 
being  enemies  to  their  country.  While  it  is  not  unlikely  that 
self-interest  and  party  feeling  on  the  part  of  many  had  much 
to  do  with  this  antagonism  to  the  administration,  yet  there  is 
no  doubt  of  the  fact  that  a  large  number  were  sincere  in  their 
convictions  that  the  continuation  of  the  struggle,  as  well  as 
its  beginning,  was  absolutely  wrong  in  principle.  A 

Near  the  close  of  the  year  (i2th  month,  isth)  an  impor 
tant  convention  of  delegates  from  several  of  the  New  England 
states  was  held  at  Hartford,  for  the  purpose  of  considering  the 
defenceless  condition  of  their  sea-port  towns,  the  state  of  the 
country  generally,  and  also  to  suggest  sundry  amendments  to 
the  constitution.  The  amendments  which  they  agreed  to  re 
port  were  seven  in  number,  to  wit :  that  all  acts  placing 


1814]  BATTLE    OF  NEW  ORLEANS.  367 

restrictions  on  commerce,  as  also  declarations  of  war,  should 
only  be  valid  upon  the  concurrence  of  two-thirds  of  both 
houses  of  Congress;  that  a  similar  majority  should  be  requisite 
for  the  admission  of  new  states ;  that  no  embargo  should  be 
laid  for  a  longer  period  than  sixty  days ;  that  naturalized  per 
sons  should  not  be  eligible  to  the  national  offices ;  that  the 
office  of  president  should  not  be  held  by  the  same  individual 
oftener  than  for  one  term  ;,  and  that  representation  and  direct 
taxes  should  be  apportioned  among  the  respective  states 
according  to  the  number  of  free  persons  therein.  The  reso 
lutions  adopted  by  the  convention,  and  the  proposed  amend 
ments,  were  forwarded  by  a  committee  to  Congress;  but  about 
the  same  time  news  arrived  that  a  treaty  of  peace  had  been 
signed.  The  proposed  amendments  were  subsequently  sub 
mitted  to  the  several  states,  but  were  concurred  in  by  only 
three  of  them. 

BATTLE  OF  NEW  ORLEANS  AND  END  OF  THE  WAR. 

Although  the  treaty  of  peace  had  been  signed  by  the  com 
missioners  at  Ghent,  on  the  24th  day  of  i2th  month,  1814, 
yet  it  was  not  until  after  a  great  battle  had  been  fought  at 
New  Orleans  that  the  joyful  news  of  the  treaty  was  received 
in  this  country.  Information  of  a  projected  attack  by  the 
British,  somewhere  upon  the  gulf-coast,  had  been  divulged 
to  Governor  Claiborne,  of  Louisiana.  It  also  became  known 
that  a  large  quantity  of  arms  and  ammunition,  for  arming  the 
Indians  against  the  United  States  forces,  had  been  landed  at 
Pensacola.  Florida  still  being  a  Spanish  province,  General 
Jackson  marched  against  Pensacola  and  captured  it,  alleging 
that  the  Spaniards  had  violated  their  neutrality  in  allowing 
that  harbor  to  be  used  for  hostile  purposes. 

Meanwhile,  the  British  squadron,  having  entered  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  directed  its  course  to  the  north  of  the  Mississippi 


368  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1815 

delta,  so  as  to  approach  New  Orleans  on  the  east,  by  the  way 
of  Lake  Borgne.  The  flotilla  of  the  Americans  was  soon  over 
come.  A  part  of  the  British  troops,  having  been  landed  at 
the  west  end  of  the  lake,  marched,  in  a  few  hours,  across  to 
the  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  and  posted  themselves  below  the 
city.  General  Jackson  had  caused  to  be  thrown  up  a  para 
pet  of  earth  and  cotton  bales,  along  the  front  of  which  was  a 
ditch  containing  five  feet  depth  of  water.  The  British  army, 
numbering  about  10,000  men,  and  commanded  by  Sir  Edward 
Pakenham,  made  two  unsuccessful  attempts  to  dislodge  Jack 
son  from  his  position.  Finally,  having  received  further  rein 
forcements,  a  decisive  battle  was  fought  on  the  8th  day  of  the 
ist  month  (January),  1815.  Pakenham  was  killed,  and  two 
of  his  principal  generals  were  disabled.  So  severe  was  the 
loss  of  the  British  that,  ten  days  later,  they  abandoned  their 
position  and  retreated,  leaving  behind  them  their  wounded 
and  artillery. 

The  TREATY  OF  GHENT  was  immediately  ratified  by  the 
American  government,  yet  the  result  of  the  contest  was  but 
another  instance  of  the  foolishness  and  crime  of  resorting  to 
war  for  the  establishment  of  justice.  It  was  stipulated  by  the 
treaty  that  all  places  which  had  been  captured  during  the  war, 
and  which  were  yet  occupied  by  either  of  the  late  contestants, 
should  be  restored  to  their  respective  owners.  But,  the  vexed 
subject  of  impressment,  which,  since  the  abrogation  of  the 
Orders  in  Council,  was  the  only  pretext  for  war,  remained 
unsettled  and  unprovided  for  in  any  way.  It  is  worthy  of 
remark  that  a  better  treaty  could  have  been  secured  before  the 
war;  for  the  British  government  was  then  willing  to  disclaim 
all  arbitrary  acts  of  impressment,  and  to  leave  the  topic  open 
for  debate  and  probable  settlement  at  a  future  time. 

James  Monroe,  our  minister  to  England  before  the  war,  stated  as 
follows  :  "  By  this  paper  [the  one  prepared  by  the  British  commis- 


I8i6]  LIBERIA.  ^69 

sioners]  it  is  evident  that  the  rights  of  the  United  States  were 
expressly  to  be  reserved,  and  not  abandoned,  as  has  been  most  erro 
neously  supposed  ;  that  the  negotiation  on  the  subject  of  impress 
ment  was  to  be  postponed  for  a  limited  time,  and  for  a  special  object 
only,  and  to  be  revived  as  soon  as  that  object  was  accomplished  ; 
and  in  the  interim,  that  the  practice  of  impressment  was  to  corre 
spond  essentially  with  the  views  and  interests  of  the  United  States." 

A  few  weeks  after  the  peace  had  been  ratified,  the  United 
States  government  issued  a  declaration  of  war  against  Algiers, 
that  country  having,  like  Tripoli  a  few  years  earlier,  been 
guilty  of  depredating  upon  American  commerce  and  exacting 
tribute. 

Two  fleets,  commanded  respectively  by  Commodores  Bain- 
bridge  and  Decatur,  were  accordingly  despatched  to  the 
Mediterranean.  Having  effected  the  capture  of  two  Algerian 
war-vessels,  they  sailed  into  the  harbors  of  the  capital  cities 
of  Algiers,  Tunis  and  Tripoli.  The  dey  of  Algiers  submitted, 
and  the  rulers  of  the  other  two  states  agreed  to  faithfully 
observe  the  former  treaties  which  had  been  entered  into  with 
the  United  States.  Commodore  Decatur,  who  was  greatly 
applauded  for  his  victories,  was  killed  a  few  years  afterward  in 
a  duel  with  Commodore  Barron. 

In  1816,  the  territory  of  Indiana  was  admitted,  the  nine 
teenth  state,  into  the  Union.  In  the  same  year  there  was 
projected  the  American  Colonization  Society,  for  the  purpose 
of  founding,  in  Africa,  a  colony  to  which  free  blacks  could  be 
removed,  and  where  they  would  be  afforded  favorable  oppor 
tunities  for  self-improvement.  HENRY  CLAY  was  its  first  pres 
ident.  In  consequence  of  the  unhealthy  location  of  the  land 
first  chosen  for  settlement,  this  interesting  experiment  did  not 
at  first  meet  with  success;  but  in  1821,  a  much  more  suitable 
tract  of  territory  on  the  Grain  Coast  of  west  Africa  was 
selected,  and  here  arose  the  republic  of  LIBERIA.  The  num 
ber  of  colored  immigrants  from  the  United  States  has  never 
Q* 


37o  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1817 

in  any  one  year  exceeded  eight  hundred  ;  nevertheless,  there 
have  been  considerable  accessions  of  Africans  from  regions 
contiguous  to  the  republic,  and  its  total  population  is  now 
(1876)  upward  of  700,000.  Schools  and  places  of  worship 
have  steadily  increased,  newspapers  are  published,  a  postal 
system  is  in  regular  operation,  and  in  some  of  the  neighbor 
ing  states  slavery  has  been  abolished.  Palm-oil  and  coffee  are 
the  chief  articles  of  export.  Much  aid  to  the  enterprise  has 
been  afforded  by  Great  Britain. 

The  charter  of  the  first  Bank  of  the  United  States  had 
expired  in  1811.  Numerous  state  banks  were  thereupon 
established  to  supply  the  commercial  need  of  ready  money. 
But  during  the  war  which  immediately  ensued,  there  was  an 
expansion  in  the  currency,  followed  very  soon  by  a  suspension 
of  specie  payments.  Bills,  small  notes  and  tickets  were  then 
issued,  not  only  by  the  banks,  but  also  by  the  cities,  counties, 
towns,  and  even  by  individuals.  All  these  had  their  own 
local  currencies,  bearing  no  fixed  proportionate  value  to  one 
another,  and,  as  a  consequence,  there  arose  an  extensive  class 
of  brokers.  Counterfeiting  also  became  frequent.  As  a  sub 
stitute  for  this  monetary  confusion,  Congress  chartered  the 
second  United  States  Bank  (1816),  with  a  capital  of  35  mil 
lion  dollars.  It  was  authorized  to  continue  incorporated  for 
the  term  of  twenty  years.  Nevertheless,  a  rigorous  commer 
cial  pressure  prevailed,  especially  in  the  five  years  from  1816 
to  1820.  Manufactures  were  so  greatly  depressed  that  mills 
and  workshops  were  everywhere  closed.  With  flour  as  low 
at  one  time  as  a  dollar  per  barrel  and  sheep  at  a  dollar  per 
head,  it  is  not  surprising  that  farms  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
mortgage-holders  at  one-half  or  one-third  their  proper  values. 
This  depression  in  production  and  trade  continued,  until  alle 
viated  (for  a  while  at  least),  by  the  general  demand  for  inter 
nal  improvements. 


CHAPTER   XXVII. 

PRESIDENCIES   OF  MONROE  AND   J.  Q.  ADAMS. 
1817 — 1829. 


FIRST   SEMINOLE  WAR.     FLORIDA   CEDED   BY   SPAIN. 

THE  presidential  office  for  the  next  two  terms  was  filled  by 
James  Monroe,  of  Virginia.  DANIEL  D.  TOMPKINS,  of  New 
York,  was  continued  as. vice-president  for  the  same  period. 
They  were  elected,  almost  without  opposition,  by  the  same 
political  party  (the  Democratic-Republican)  which  elected 
Jefferson  and  Madison.  It  was  a  time  when  the  one  political 
party  was  so  strong,  and  had  everything  so  much  the  one 
way,  that  it  was  called  "the  era  of  good  feeling."  The 
president,  upon  his  inauguration  in  1817,  visited  all  the 
northern  and  eastern  states,  and  was  there  cordially  received. 
Monroe  was  of  a  cautious  and  conciliatory  disposition,  care 
ful  to  avoid  coming  into  conflict  with  any  strong  opposing 
interests.  According  to  Jefferson,  he  was  indeed  slow,  but 
give  him  time,  and  his  judgment  was  very  accurate. 

As  a  good  token  for  the  beginning  of  the  new  administra 
tion,  an  agreement  was  entered  into  with  Great  Britain,  regu 
lating  and  reducing  the  naval  force  of  each  power  upon  the 
Great  Lakes.  It  was  mutually  agreed  that,  upon  Lakes  Ontario 
and  Champlain,  but  one  armed  vessel  should  be  kept  in  service, 
by  either  party;  and  that  on  either  Lakes  Erie,  Huron  or 
Superior,  there  should  be  no  more  than  two  such  maintained 
by  each  nation,  and  those  armed  with  a  single  gun  only.  It 


372  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1817 

is  not  to  be  believed  that  the  people  of  Canada  or  the  United 
States  have  ever  seriously  regretted  this  almost  complete 
abandonment  of  their  lake  armaments ;  and  it  will  be  a  year 
to  rejoice  in  when  their  ocean  armaments  are  similarly  cur 
tailed.  Let  the  national  vessels  be  increased,  if  need  be,  for 
every  purpose  of  progress,  enlightenment  and  of  international 
good  will,  but  let  the  menacing  cannon  be  speedily  abolished 
from  every  sea ! 

Several  important  treaties  were  made  with  the  Indians. 
The  Delawares,  Wyandottes,  Shawnees  and  other  tribes,  hold 
ing  lands  within  the  limits  of  the  state  of  Ohio,  ceded  the 
same  to  the  United  States;  being  permitted,  if  they  chose,  to 
remain  on  the  land,  subject,  however,  to  the  national  and  state 
laws.  Soon  afterward  the  lands  of  the  Chickasaws,  west  of 
the  Tennessee  river,  in  the  states  of  Tennessee  and  Kentucky, 
were  ceded  by  that  tribe  to  the  government.  But  with  the 
Seminoles,  occupying  the  southern  border  of  Georgia  and  the 
Spanish  territory  of  Florida,  a  serious  conflict  took  place  in 
1817  and  1818. 

This  first  war  with  the  Seminoles  was  owing  to  several  causes, 
the  chief  of  which  were,  that  that  tribe  had  harbored  Creek 
Indians,  as  well  as  slaves  who  had  escaped  from  their  masters, 
and  that  there  had  been  several  murders  upon  the  Florida 
border,  which  called  for  punishpent.  The  hope  of  getting 
the  land  readily  cleared  of  the  It  ,;'^m  title  and  of  the  Indians 
themselves,  was  a  moving  motive  lor  a  campaign,  The  enmity 
on  the  part  of  the  Indians  was  intensified  by  one  of  their 
prophets,  as  well  as  by  two  English  traders,  who  had  their 
homes  with  the  tribe.  In  the  latter  part  of  1817,  a  detach 
ment  of  forty  United  States  soldiers  was  sent  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Apalachicola  river  for  the  purpose  of  removing  some 
military  stores  from  there  to  Fort  Scott.  On  their  return  they 
fell  into  an  ambuscade  of  the  Seminoles,  and  alt  but  six  were 
killed.  General  GAINES,  commanding  in  that  quarter,  de- 


I8i9]  FlfiST  SEMINOLE    WAR.  373 

manded  the  offenders,  but  the  tribe  refused  to  give  them  up. 
Whereupon  General  Jackson,  with  a  body  of  Tennesseans, 
hastened  to  the  spot. 

The  reader  will  remember  that  a  little  prior  to  the  battle 
of  New  Orleans,  Jackson  had  taken  temporary  possession  of 
Pensacola,  on  the  ground  that  the  Spanish  had  violated  their 
neutrality  in  permitting  the  English  to  land  guns  and  ammu 
nition  there  for  the  Indians.  But  now,  the  Americans  had 
themselves  landed  military  stores  at  a  Spanish  port ;  while 
the  Indians,  resenting  the  conveyance  of  material  intended  for 
their  destruction  through  territory  claimed  by  them,  under 
took  their  defence  in  the  same  savage  way  that  Jackson  him 
self  would  probably  have  resorted  to.  But  our  country's 
dealings  with  the  Indians  have  been  proverbially  inconsistent. 
The  Seminoles  were  soon  defeated  and  driven  southward,  and 
Jackson,  entering  Florida,  took  possession  of  the  Spanish  forts 
St.  Mark's  and  Pensacola,  because  he  alleged  that  they  har 
bored  the  hostile  Indians.  The  two  English  emissaries  were 
captured,  and,  being  tried  by  a  court-martial,  were  sentenced 
to  death,  on  the  charge  of  inciting  the  Indians  to  war.- 
Jackson  then  ordered  St.  Augustine  to  be  occupied,  but  this 
high-handed  measure  was  countermanded  by  the  government. 

In  the  year  following  the  defeat  of  the  Seminoles  (1819),  a 
treaty  was  negotiated  at  Washington  between  JOHN  QUINCY 
ADAMS,  secretary  of  state,  d  Don  On  is,  the  Spanish  min 
ister,  by  which  the  atter  agreed,  on  behalf  of  his  government, 
to  cede  Florida  to  the  United  States  for  the  sum  of  five  million 
dollars.  It  was  provided,  however,  that  the  money,  instead 
of  being  paid  directly  to  Spain,  should  be  used  to  satisfy  the 
claims  of  United  States  citizens  against  Spain  for  spoliations. 

The  president  and  Senate  agreed  to  the  treaty  at  once. 
Upon  its  being  sent  to  Spain,  the  king  refused  to  ratify  it; 
but,  after  delaying  more  than  a  year,  he  gave  it  his  sanction, 
probably  concluding  that  it  would  be  wiser  to  cancel  the 

32 


374  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1820 

claims  by  ceding  a  possession  which  had  proved  of  so  little 
profit,  than  to  expend  any  money  in  its  defence.  Florida  be 
came  a  territory  of  the  Republic  in  1821,  with  General  Jackson, 
as  governor.  It  was  first  divided  into  two  districts  or  counties  \ 
the  one  east  of  the  Suwanee  river  being  called  St.  John's,  and 
the  other  west  of  that  river,  Escambia. 

MISSISSIPPI  had  been  admitted,  the  twentieth  state,  in  1817; 
ILLINOIS  in  1818;  Alabama  in  1819;  and  Maine  (upon  sepa 
rating  from  Massachusetts)  in  1820.  But  the  petition  to  Con 
gress  in  the  latter  year,  for  the  admission  of  Missouri,  gave  rise 
to  a  highly  acrimonious  debate,  growing  out  of  the  question 
whether  it  should  be  admitted  with  or  without  slavery. 

Missouri's  chief  city,  ST.  Louis,  was  built  on  the  site  of  a  trading- 
post  which  had  been  established  there  (1763)  during  the  French 
domination.  The  founder  was  La  Clede,  a  Frenchman,  who  had 
been  granted  a  monopoly  of  the  fur  trade  of  the  upper  Mississippi 
and  Missouri. 


THE    MISSOURI   COMPROMISE.     THE   SLAVE   TRADE 
PROHIBITED. 

Although  at  the  period  of  the  Revolution,  slavery  really 
existed  in  all  the  states,  Massachusetts  alone  excepted,  yet 
in  the  forty  years  which  had  since  elapsed,  it  had  been  grad 
ually  abolished  from  all  the  section  north  and  east  of  Maryland 
and  the  Delaware.  Likewise,  as  a  condition  of  the  cession 
by  Virginia  to  the  Union,  of  all  the  territory  claimed  by  it 
between  the  Ohio  and  the  Mississippi,  slavery  was  to  be  ex 
cluded  therefrom ;  and  hence  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illinois  had 
been  admitted  as  free  states.  On  the  other  hand,  when  North 
Carolina  ceded  to  the  government  its  right  of  possession  to 
the  territory  of  Tennessee,  and  Georgia  its  claim  to  the 
Mississippi  territory,  it  was  with  the  understanding  that  the 
institution  of  slavery  should  continue  therein  undisturbed. 


1 820]  THE  MISSOURI  COMPROMISE.  375 

Hence  the  important  question  which  arose  in  Congress,  when 
the  admission  of  Missouri  was  debated,  was,  whether  such 
admission  should  be  accompanied  by  any  restriction  as  to 
slavery. 

The  advocates  of  restriction  affirmed,  that  every  new  state, 
had,  like  those  just  instanced,  been  subject  to  some  conditions, 
and  that  the  power  of  Congress  to  impose  such  had  not  been 
before  denied.  The  states  of  the  North-West  had  quietly 
acquiesced  in  just  such  conditions,  and  the  rule  appeared  to 
be  properly  settled  on  the  ground  of  usage.  But  the  oppo 
nents  of  the  measure  held  the  opinion  that  any  such  curtail 
ment  of  a  domestic  practice  was  invidious  to  the  slave-holding 
states  by  abridging  their  share  of  political  power,  at  the  same 
time  that  it  was  a  usurpation  of  the  sovereign  rights  of  the 
states  :  that  a  state  even  if  admitted  with  such  a  restriction, 
could  still  establish  slavery,  because  the  constitution  did  not 
forbid  it ;  and  moreover,  that  it  was  both  unwise  and  unsafe 
to  confine  the  keeping  of  slaves  within  the  original  territory 
where  it  prevailed,  because,  while  the  whites  would  be  emi 
grating  to  the  new  states  of  the  West,  the  blacks  would  all 
remain  and  by  natural  increase  would  eventually  outnumber 
and  perhaps  overwhelm  the  remaining  white  population. 

The  votes  of  the  members  upon  this  subject  were,  neverthe 
less,  largely  influenced  by  another  question,  namely,  the 
policy  of  protecting  home  manufactures  by  imposing  a  tax 
upon  foreign  importations.  The  slave  states  were  almost 
altogether  agricultural ;  and,  inasmuch  as  manufactured  goods 
could  be  imported  from  Europe  cheaper  than  they  could  be 
made  and  sold  at  home,  it  therefore  became  their  interest  to 
declare  for  free  trade.  But  in  New  England,  the  interference 
with  commerce  prior  to,  and  during  the  war  of  1812,  had 
stimulated  home  manufactures,  principally  in  iron,  woollen 
and  cotton.  Many  mills  were  erected,  especially  in  Rhode 
Island,  and  large  profits,  chiefly  from  the  making  of  coarse 


376  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1821 

cotton  goods,  were  realized.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  the  war, 
however,  cheaper  English  goods  began  to  compete  with  the 
American,  and  consequently  the  mills  of  the  latter  were 
obliged  to  suspend  operations.  Then  a  tariff  was  asked  for, 
and  to  defeat  that  measure,  the  agricultural  and  commercial 
interests  were  mostly  combined  against  the  manufacturing,  in 
a  contest  for  the  possession  of  political  power. 

The  result  of  the  long  and  exciting  debate  in  Congress,  was 
a  resolution  of  compromise,  intended  to  reconcile  the  two 
great  parties  who  were  struggling,  the  one  to  promote, , the 
other  to  restrict,  the  extension  of  slavery..  The  resolution 
was  to  the  effect  that  Missouri  should  be  admitted  without 
any  restriction,  that  is,  that  it  might,  if  it  chose,  be  a  slave- 
holding  state ;  but  that  in  the  future,  no  slave  state  should  be 
erected  out  of  United  States,  territory,  north  of  the  parallel 
of  36°  30'  north  latitude, — the  northern  boundary  line  of 
ARKANSAS.  The  latter  territory  had  been  separated  from 
Missouri  the  year  previously. 

Before  Missouri  was  finally  admitted,  in  1821,  a  constitu 
tion  for  the  state  had  been  formed,  but  it  met  with  great 
opposition  in  Congress  in  consequence  of  its  containing  the 
clause  that  free  negroes  and  mulattoes  should  be  prohibited 
from  coming  to  or  settling  in  the  state.  So  strenuously  did 
the  friends  of  that  unrighteous  provision  contend  for  its  pas 
sage,  that  it  was  not  defeated  until  its  discussion  had  occupied 
a  large  part  of  the  session  !  The  important  decision  at  last 
arrived  at  was,  that  all  free  citizens  of  the  United  States 
should  be  entitled  to  all  the  rights  guaranteed  them  by  the 
federal  constitution,  where  it  declares  "  that  the  citizens  of 
each  state  shall  be  entitled  to  all  the  privileges  and  immu 
nities  of  the  several  states ;"  and  therefore  that  no  state  law 
infringing  those  fundamental  rights  should  be  passed. 

The  ultimate  solution  of  the  question  of  slavery,  as  affecting  the 
peace  of  the  Union,  must  have  been  very  different  had  the  system 


1 822]  SLAVE-TRADE   PROHIBITED, 


377 


been  abolished  at  that  time  from  all  the  states  in  which  it  existed 
north  of  the  parallel  of  36°  30'.  It  is  that  parallel  which  forms  the 
southern  boundary  of  Kentucky  and  Virginia,  as  well  as  of  Missouri. 

Some  of  the  foremost  men  of  Virginia  strongly  favored  the  ex 
tinction  of  slavery. 

Washington  wrote  as  follows,  in  1786  :  "  I  never  mean,  unless 
some  particular  circumstances  should  compel  me  to  it,  to  possess 
another  slave  by  purchase,  it  being  among  my  first  wishes  to  see 
some  plan  adopted  by  which  slavery  in  this  country  may  be  abol 
ished  by  law."  And  again,  he  says  :  "There  are  in  Pennsylvania, 
laws  for  the  gradual  abolishing  of  slavery,  which  neither  Virginia 
nor  Maryland  have  at  present,  but  which  nothing  is  more  certain 
than  they  must  have,  and  at  a  period  not  remote."  By  his  will  he 
directed  that  all  the  slaves  which  he  held  in  his  own  right  should 
receive  their  freedom. 

Patrick  Henry  and  Thomas  Jefferson  were  similarly  persuaded  of 
the  injustice  and  immorality  of  the  system. 

At  London,  during  the  year  1822,  was  held  a  conference 
of  English  and  American  commissioners,  for  the  purpose  of 
arriving  at  a  mutual  understanding  with  regard  to  the  slave- 
trade.  Articles  of  convention  were  agreed  to,  which  author 
ized  the  commissioned  officers  of  either  nation  to  treat  the 
"  slave-traders  as  pirates, — permitting  them  to  seize  and  con 
demn  the  vessels  of  either  country  engaged  in  the  traffic, 
without  liability  of  interference  by  their  respective  govern 
ments." 

It  will  be  proper  to  mention  in  this  place,  a  few  facts,  as 
exhibiting  the  change  in  public  opinion  since  Sir  John  Haw 
kins,  in  the  year  1563,  brought  the  dishonor  of  the  slave- 
traffic  upon  the  English  name.  The  wicked  commerce  con 
tinued  increasing,  until  in  the  twenty  years  between  1680  and 
1700,  not  less  than  300,000  natives  of  Africa  had  been  ex 
ported  by  Englishmen.  From  1700  to  1780,  about  600,000 
were  exported  to  Jamaica  alone,  and  with  accompaniments  of 
cruelty  and  a  terrible  disregard  for  life,  such  as  have  been 
already  sufficiently  set  forth. 

32* 


373  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1822 

Aiming  at  the  suppression  of  so  notorious  an  evil,  a  society, 
of  which  GRANVILLE  SHARP  and  THOMAS  CLARKSON  were 
among  the  most  active  members,  was  organized  in  London  in 
1787.  They  established  the  little  colony  of  Sierra  Leone  on 
the  west  coast  of  Africa,  for  the  same  purposes  that  the  Amer 
ican  Colonization  Society  subsequently  purchased  the  Liberia 
tract.  In  parliament,  their  philanthropic  views  found  able 
supporters  in  WILBERFORCE  and  PITT  ;  the  first  fruit  of  their 
labor  being  an  order  of  the  crown  in  the  following  year,  di 
recting  an  inquiry  into  the  state  of  the  slave-trade.  An  act 
was  also  passed  for  the  amelioration  of  the  horrors  of  the 
"middle  passage."  But  it  was  not  until  the  year  1807,  that 
a  bill  making  the  slave-trade  illegal,  received  the  royal  assent. 
Accordingly,  the  subjects  of  Britain  were  forced  to  carry  on 
their  nefarious  traffic  under  the  cover  of  the  flags  of  Spain  and 
Portugal;  and  the  slave  ships  being  now  more  crowded  than 
ever,  it  occasionally  happened  that  the  miserable  negroes  were 
thrown  overboard  when  the  risk  of  capture  seemed  imminent. 
Four  years  afterward  an  act  was  passed,  which  made  the  slave- 
trade  a  felony  and  punishable  with  transportation  or  long 
imprisonment  at  hard  labor;  and  at  last,  in  1822,  it  was  de 
clared  to  be  piracy,  and  the  participants  therein  guilty  of  a 
capital  crime.  The  United  States  announced  its  abolition  of 
the  African  slave-trade  immediately  after  Great  Britain  (1807). 

In  1822,  the  English  parliament  declared  the  ports  of  the 
West  Indies  opened  to  trade  with  the  United  States.  For 
some  years  previous,  American  commerce  in  the  West  Indian 
seas  had  suffered  considerably  from  the  depredations  of  pirates; 
and,  now  that  an  impulse  was  given  to  trade  in  that  quarter, 
measures  were  taken  to  suppress  the  evil.  Commodore  Porter 
was  placed  in  command  of  a  squadron,  and  sailed  to  the  Carib 
bean  seas.  The  pirates,  prevented  from  making  captures,  fre 
quented  the  shallow  waters  of  the  numerous  islands  of  the 
Antilles,  and  changed  their  system  of  freebootery  by  depre- 


1 824]  MONROE  DOCTRINE.  379 

dating  upon  the  settlements  or  engaging  in  the  slave-trade. 
Hence,  the  evil  was  not  so  much  suppressed,  as  it  was  scat 
tered. 

In  the  same  eventful  year  (1822),  a  part  of  the  northern 
boundary  line  between  the  United  States  and  the  British  pos 
sessions,  was  settled  by  commissioners  appointed  in  accordance 
with  the  Treaty  of  Ghent.  The  line  began  at  the  intersec 
tion  of  the  northern  boundary  of  New  York  state  with  the  St. 
Lawrence,  thence  up  the  middle  of  that  river,  and  through 
the  middle  of  Lakes  Ontario,  Erie,  Huron  and  Superior. 
But  the  continuation  of  the  line  from  the  west  end  of  Lake 
Superior  to  the  Pacific,  was  left  undetermined.  On  the  Pacific 
coast  there  was  as  yet  no  settlement  but  that  of  Astoria, 
founded  in  1811,  by  JohijLjacob  Astor,  as  a  trading-post  of 
the  American  Fur  Company.  .  A  few  years  earlier,  the  Rus 
sians  had  established  a  trading-depot  of  the  Russian-American 
Fur  Company  at  New  Archangel,  on  the  island  of  Sitka, 

In  the  President's  Message  to  Congress  in  1823,  was  con 
tained  that  announcement  of  national  policy  which  has  since 
been  widely  known  as  the  "  Monroe  Doctrine."  Alluding  to 
the  recent  formation  of  the  South  American  republics,  he  said 
that  "we  could  not  view  any  interposition  for  the  purpose  of 
oppressing  them,  or  controlling,  in  any  manner,  their  destiny 
by  Europeans,  in  any  other  light  than  the  manifestation  of  an 
unfriendly  disposition  towards  the  United  States."  "  Neither 
entangling  ourselves  in  the  broils  of  Europe,  nor  suffering  the 
powers  of  the  Old  World  to  interfere  with  the  affairs  of  the 
New,"  he  declared  to  be  the  American  policy,  and  that  "any 
attempt  to  extend  their  system  [of  monarchical  government] 
to  any  portion  of  this  hemisphere,  would  be  dangerous  to  our 
peace  and  safety." 

In  the  8th  month  (August),  1824,  General  Lafayette  arrived 
at  New  York,  having  received  from  Congress  an  invitation  to 
visit  the  United  States.  He  spent  upward  of  a  year  in  the 


3 So  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1824 

country,  and  visited  nearly  all  the  states  of  the  Union,  being 
everywhere  received  with  much  applause.  Congress  made 
him  a  grant  of  $200,000,  besides  presenting  him  with  a  town 
ship  of  land  in  Florida,  in  consideration  of  his  Revolutionary 
services. 


JOHN     QUINCY    ADAMS,   SIXTH    PRESIDENT.     INTERNAL    IM 
PROVEMENTS. 

Four  candidates  for  the  presidential  office  appeared  in  the 
canvass  of  1824.  A  plurality  of  votes  was  given  by  the  elec 
tors  for  Jackson,  but  as  the  constitution  required  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  votes  cast,  and  the  people  had  failed 
of  a  choice,  the  election  devolved  upon  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives.  The  result  was  the  election  of  John  Quincy 
Adams,  who  received  the  votes  of  13  states,  while  Jackson 
obtained  those  of  but  7.  Henry  Clay,  who  had  also  been  a 
candidate  for  the  presidency,  was  appointed  by  Adams  his 
secretary  of  state. 

John  Q.  Adams  of  Massachusetts,  was  the  son  of  John 
Adams,  the  second  president.  With  the  political  views  of 
his  father  he  was  in  perfect  accord.  During  Jefferson's  ad 
ministration,  he  occupied  for  awhile  the  professorship  of 
rhetoric  at  Harvard  University,  but  soon  turned  his  attention 
again  to  politics,  and,  apparently  favoring  the  cause  of  Presi 
dent  Madison,  he  was  sent  by  the  latter  on  an  embassy  to 
Europe,  and  aided  in  effecting  the  treaty  with  England-  He 
was  recalled  by  Monroe,  who  made  him  his  secretary  of  state. 
In  his  inaugural  address  as  president,  he  made  a  strong  appeal 
to  men  of  all  parties  to  lay  aside  their  political  animosities, 
and  to  cherish  those  virtues,  talents  and  Christian  principles 
which  rightly  become  an  enlightened  people. 

In  marked  contrast  with  the  unimpassioned  demeanor  of 
Adams,  the  irascible  temperament  of  the  "hero  of  New 
Orleans"  was  prominently  displayed  during  the  recent  exciting 


i8i;]  INTERNAL   IMPROVEMENTS.  ^gj 

contest  for  office.  With  one  political  opponent  he  fought  a 
duel ;  another  he  grossly  insulted  ;  and  to  a  third,  sent  a 
challenge.  As  might  be  inferred  from  his  quarrelsome  dis 
position,  Jackson's  conversation  was  very  much  marred  by 
profanity. 

The  subject  of  the  construction  of  substantial  roads  and 
the  improvement  of  the  navigation  of  the  great  rivers,  had 
enlisted  very  general  attention,  and,  either  by  states  or  private 
corporations,  several  important  works,  such  as  the  great 
central  canal  systems  of  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  were 
already  in  progress.  There  were  many  citizens,  however, 
who  desired  that  the  internal,  inter-state  improvements,  should 
partake  of  a  national  character.  With  this  object  in  view,  a 
committee  of  Congress  had,  in  1817,  at  the  close  of  Madi 
son's  administration,  recommended  the  construction  of  mili 
tary  roads,  from  the  military  and  naval  depots,  such  as  Erie, 
Detroit,  St.  Louis  and  New  Orleans ;  also  post-roads  to  con 
nect  the  chief  cities;  as  well  as  improvements  in  the  inland 
navigation,  by  the  use  of  water-locks  in  the  principal  rivers, 
or  by  the  construction  of  canals.  But  no  action  was  then 
taken. 

Next,  President  Monroe,  while  conceding  the  great  impor 
tance  of  the  works  asked  for  in  the  preceding  administration, 
was  nevertheless  of  the  opinion  that  Congress  did  not  possess 
the  constitutional  power  to  proceed  therein.  He  advised,  as 
the  safest  course  in  all  such  doubtful  cases,  that  the  constitu 
tion  should  be  so  amended  as  to  meet  the  requirements  of  the 
case.  Yet,  there  were  many  in  Congress  who  believed  that 
that  body  had  already  sufficient  power  granted  it  for  the  pur 
pose,  providing  that  the  assent  of  the  states  through  which 
such  roads  or  canals  were  proposed  to  be  constructed,  was  first 
obtained. 

In  support  of  their  position  they  cited  certain  clauses  from 
Section  viii.,  Article  I.,  of  the  Constitution,  wherein  are  enu- 


382  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1817 

merated  the  various  powers  conferred  upon  the  national  legis 
lature,  and  amongst  them  the  following  : — 

To  provide  for  the  common  defence  and  general  welfare 
of  the  United  States. 

To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  states,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes. 

To  establish  post-offices  and  post-roads. 

They  also  contended  that  the  constitutionality  of  a  principle 
may  be  settled  (even  though  it  be  not  sanctioned  by  the 
written  law)  by  the  rule  of  precedent ;  in  other  words,  by 
showing  that  the  principle  had  obtained  repeated  recognition 
under  the  different  branches  of  government.  As  examples  of 
such  precedents,  they  instanced  the  government  road  from 
Cumberland  on  the  Potomac  to  the  state  of  Ohio,  the  one  from 
Nashville  in  Tennessee,  and  still  another  from  Plattsburg  on 
Lake  Champlain.  Similarly,  Congress  had  passed  sundry  acts 
which  were  perhaps  not  strictly  warranted  by  the  written  law, 
among  which  were  those  authorizing  the  purchase  of  the  Li 
brary  ;  the  commission  to  the  artist  Trumbull,  of  Connecticut, 
to  execute  four  large  paintings  for  the  capitol ;  the  grants  of 
aid  to  sufferers  in  Venezuela ;  and  the  sending  of  an  exploring 
expedition  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  opponents  of  the  power  in  question 
asserted,  that  the  constitutional  right  to  "  establish  post-roads" 
merely  meant  that  Congress  might  designate  such  roads,  but 
not  construct  them ;  that  money  expended  for  such  a  purpose 
was  for  the  local  and  not  the  "  general  welfare/'  If  it  was 
assumed,  because  of  the  greater  facilities  which  would  be 
afforded  for  trade,  that  therefore  the  power  was  conferred 
under  the  right  to  "regulate  commerce,"  then  the  same 
interpretation  would  justify  interference  in  the  business  of 
agriculture  or  any  other  occupation  of  profit^  and  finally, 
that  the  utility  and  permanency  of  the  Union  depended  on 
the  proper  regulation  of  power  as  between  the  states  and  the 


1826]    JOHN  QUINCY  ADAMS,  SIXTH  PRESIDENT.     383 

national  government,  and  that  Congress  should  be  ever  as 
prompt  to  guard  against  the  assumption  of  any  powers  not 
distinctly  conferred,  as  it  should  be  ready  to  exercise  those 
which  have  been  certainly  granted. 

Nevertheless,  the  result  of  the  debate  in  the  House  of  Rep 
resentatives  was  a  resolution  affirming  that  Congress  had  power, 
under  the  constitution,  "to  appropriate  money  for  the  con 
struction  of  post-roads,  military  and  other  roads,  and  of  canals, 
and  for  the  improvement  of  water-courses."  At  a  subsequent 
session,  President  Monroe  was  authorized  to  have  surveys  and 
estimates  made  for  such  roads  and  canals  as  in  his  judgment 
seemed  of  prime  importance. 

But  it  remained  for  Monroe's  successor,  actually  to  carry 
out  a  number  of  these  national  improvements.  Adams  was  an 
outspoken  champion  of  the  system,  as  appeared  from  his  mes 
sage  to  Congress  in  the  first  year  of  his  presidency,  in  which, 
recommending  that  the  proceeds  of  the  public  lands  should  be 
devoted  to  public  improvements,  he  affirmed  his  belief  that 
the  enhanced  value  of  those  lands  would  amply  compensate 
for  the  expenditures.  Grants  were  therefore  made  for  the 
construction  of  a  canal  across  the  state  of  Delaware,  to  con 
nect  the  Chesapeake  and  Delaware  bays ;  for  the  Louisville 
and  Portland  canal,  at  the  Falls  of  the  Ohio ;  and  for  the 
Dismal  Swamp  canal  in  Virginia.  Surveys  were  also  made 
for  a  road  from  Washington  to  New  Orleans ;  beside  other 
works. 

On  the  4th  day  of  yth  month  (July),  1826,  died  John 
Adams  and  Thomas  Jefferson,  the  former  in  his  gist  year, 
and  the  latter  in  his  84th.  The  two  ex-presidents  had  been 
first  and  second  on  the  committee  of  five  appointed  by  the 
Continental  Congress  to  prepare  the  Declaration  of  Indepen-, 
dence.  Subsequently,  they  had  stood  at  the  head  of  the  two 
opposing  political  parties,  but  now  on  the  5oth  anniversary 
of  the  nation's  natal  day,  they  passed  out  of  the  world  together. 


384  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1825 

The  feeling  of  awe  which  overspread  the  people's  minds  on 
a  day  when  they  were  indulging  in  patriotic  jubilations  and 
festivities,  was  renewed  on  the  same  day  of  the  following  year, 
when  the  death  of  James  Monroe  also  occurred. 


DIFFICULTIES    WITH     GEORGIA    AND     THE    CREEKS.      A     NEW 
TARIFF. 


By  the  compact  entered  into  in  1802  between  the  United 
States  government  and  the  state  of  Georgia,  the  former  agreed, 
in  consideration  of  receiving  the  grant  of  all  the  territory 
between  the  Chattahoochee  and  the  Mississippi,  to  extinguish 
at  its  own  expense,  and  for  the  benefit  of  Georgia,  all  the 
Indian  claims  to  land  within  that  state  "as  early  as  the  said 
lands  could  be  peaceably  obtained  upon  reasonable  terms-." 
Except  the  north-western  portion,  which  was  held  by  the 
Cherokees,  by  far  the  larger  part  of  the  territory  was  claimed 
by  the  Creeks.  Previous  to  1825,  the  United  States  had  suc 
ceeded  in  purchasing  more  than  one-half  of  the  Creek  territory, 
but,  after  that,  the  tribe  began  to  prize  their  lands  more  highly, 
and  were  naturally  averse  to  parting  with  their  pleasant  homes 
altogether. 

Early  in  1825,  a  council  fraught  with  very  important  results 
to  the  Creeks,  was  held  at  a  place  called  Indian  Springs. 
Most  of  the  chiefs  would  not  agree  to  the  proposition  of  the 
United  States  government  for  a  cession  of  their  lands ;  but  a 
minority  of  them,  the  principal  one  of  whom  was  a  half-breed 
named  General  MACINTOSH,  were  anxious  to  sell,  and  thereby 
obtain  most  of  the  pay  for  the  lands  to  share  among  them 
selves.  In  direct  violation  of  the  laws  of  their  nation,  this 
small  body  executed  the  treaty,  while  the  government,  against 
the  protest  of  the  Creek  agent  and  the  large  majority  of  the 
tribe,  accepted  and  ratified  it.  The  Indians  who  signed  the 


1828]  GEORGIA   AND    THE   CREEKS.  385 

treaty  represented  but  8  villages  or  towns :  those  of  48  towns 
had  nothing  to  do  with  it. 

The  majority  of  the  Indians  were  highly  exasperated  when 
it  was  known  among  them  that  the  treaty  had  been  ratified. 
Fearful  of  the  consequences  of  their  displeasure,  Macintosh, 
accompanied  by  a  few  chiefs,  hastened  to  Milledgeville, 
and  craved  the  protection  of  Governor  Troup,  as  well  as  of 
the  United  States  authorities.  That  protection  was  promised, 
and  Macintosh  accordingly  returned;  but  his  house  being 
soon  afterward  surrounded  and  set  on  fire  by  the  Indians,  he 
was  shot  as  he  was  escaping  therefrom,  and  his  body  thrown 
back  into  the  flames.  The  Indians  claimed  that  they  had  but 
punished  the  delinquent  chief  according  to  their  law.  The 
governor  was  about  to  execute  vengeance  on  the  perpetrators, 
but  finding  that  the  government  was  opposed  to  that  course 
and  was  in  favor  of  retarding  the  execution  of  the  treaty,  he 
desisted~- 

Nevertheless,  the  Creek  lands  were  duly  surveyed.  Over  one 
hundred  surveyors  were  commissioned  to  perform  the  work, 
so  that  it  might  be  done  right  speedily  ;  and  two  years  subse 
quently,  the  entire  territory  acquired  from  them  was  disposed 
of  for  settlement  by  lottery.  But  in  the  meantime  the  gov 
ernment  negotiated  another  and  more  equitable  treaty  with 
the  Creeks,  by  which  it  was  agreed  to  pay,  for  the  lands 
owned  by  them  in  Georgia,  the  sum  of  $217,000,  to  be  di 
vided  between  the  chiefs  and  warriors ;  likewise  to  give  them 
a  perpetual  annuity  of  $20,000.  Separate  provision  was  also 
made  for  the  friends  and  followers  of  Macintosh,  who  were 
required  to  remove  to  land  to  be  purchased  for  them  farther 
westward. 

The  Congress  of  1828,  for  the  better  encouragement  of 
native  manufactures,  enacted  a  new  tariff  law,  by  which  en 
hanced  duties  were  laid  on  iron,  wool,  hemp,  distilled  spirits, 
etc.  This  was  received  with  much  dissatisfaction  by  the  com- 
R  33 


3S6  HISTORY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES.  [1828 

mercial  and  agricultural  portions  of  the  community.  In  the 
canvass  for  a  new  president,  the  passage  of  the  act  was  made 
use  of  with  great  effect  in  exciting  public  indignation,  especi 
ally  in  the  Southern  states.  In  South  Carolina  and  Georgia, 
where  the  feeling  against  it  was  strongest,  their  legislatures 
declared  the  act  unconstitutional,  unjust  and  oppressive,  and 
that  it  was  not  binding  on  those  states  which  were  opposed  to 
its  operation.  Adams  and  Jackson  being  again  candidates 
for  the  presidency,  the  latter  was  elected  by  a  considerable 
majority.  JOHN  C.  CALHOUN,  of  South  Carolina,  was  chosen 
vice-president. 


CHAPTER    XXVIII. 

JACKSON'S  TROUBLOUS  ADMINISTRATION.     VAN  BUREN 
AND   HARRISON. 

1829 — 1841. 


REMOVAL    OF    THE    CHEROKEES. 

IT  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  chapter,  how  that  the 
difficulties  between  the  United  States  government,  the  Creeks, 
and  the  state  of  Georgia,  resulted  finally  in  the  purchase  of  all 
the  Creek  territory  within  the  latter  state.  But  the  dispute 
with  the  Cherokees  was  not  so  soon  adjusted.  That  tribe 
then  occupied  all  the  north-western  portion  of  the  state, 
which  thence  became  generally  spoken  of  as  "  Cherokee 
Georgia."  Having  a  printed  constitution  and  code  of  laws, 
they  had  declared  themselves  independent ;  while  the  Amer 
ican  government,  by  solemn  treaty  stipulations  had  guaranteed 
to  respect  their  nationality,  and  to  secure  peaceful  possession 
of  the  land  to  them  and  their  heirs  for  ever. 

The  general  government,  in  pursuance  of  its  right  to 
regulate  intercourse  with  the  Indian  tribes,  prohibited  any 
United  States  citizens  from  settling  in  the  territory,  or  from 
trading  with  the  Indians  without  a  special  license.  But  the 
state  of  Georgia,  having  extended  the  jurisdiction  of  her 
criminal  courts  over  the  territory,  became  extremely  anxious 
that  the  red  men  should  depart,  and  made  repeated  efforts 
to  induce  them  to  barter  their  territory  for  land  beyond  the 
Mississippi.  The  Cherokees,  however,  were  not  a  roving 
nation  like  the  wild  Pawnees  and  Comanches  of  the  plains, 

387 


338  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1831 

and  inasmuch  as  they  cherished  a  fondness  for  the  name  of 
home,  they  refused  to  acquiesce  in  the  wishes  of  their  en 
croaching  neighbors. 

Endeavors  were  made  by  the  Georgians  to  accomplish  their 
purpose  by  congressional  legislation,  but  they  soon  perceived 
that  any  coercive  measure  would  meet  with  disfavor  so  long 
as  Adams  remained  president.  Nevertheless,  in  1828,  a  bill 
passed  Congress,  allotting  lands  beyond  the  Mississippi,  as 
reservations  thereafter  for  all  the  Indians  remaining  in  the 
states  and  territories  east  of  that  river.  Upon  the  installation 
of  President  Jackson  the  following  year,  the  authorities  of 
Georgia  experienced  less  difficulty  than  hitherto  in  carrying 
out  their  designs. 

Aware  that  the  white  missionaries  among  the  Cherokees 
were  mostly  opposed  to  the  removal  of  the  tribe,  a  bill  was 
passed  by  the  Georgia  legislature  that  no  whites  would  be  per 
mitted  within  the  terrritoryv  The  missionaries  refusing  to  take 
the  hint,  were  arrested,  treated  with  much  indignity,  and 
being  brought  before  a  state  court,  two  of  them  were  sen 
tenced  to  four  years'  confinement  with  hard  labor,  in  the 
penitentiary.  In  1831,  the  governor  ordered  the  survey  of 
the  Cherokee  lands  to  be  made;  ^the  next  year  they  were  all 
disposed  of  by  lottery,  and  the  year  afterward  were  divided 
and  organized  as  ten  counties  of  the  state  of  Georgia.  As 
had  been  done  in  the  case  of  the  Creeks,  a  treaty,  not  accept 
able  to  the  majority  of  the  nation,  was  made  by  United  States 
commissioners,  with  a  part  of  the  Cherokees.  Notwithstanding 
the  strenuous  opposition  of  JOHN  Ross,  the  principal  chief, 
Congress  ratified  the  treaty.  Its  principal  conditions  were 
as  follows  : 

The  Cherokee  nation,  in  consideration  of  the  sum  of 
5,000,000  dollars,  were  to  relinquish  all  their  lands  east  of  the 
Mississippi..  There  was  granted  to  them,  west  of  that  river, 
a  tract  of  seven  million  acres  of  land,  which  the  government 


1832]  NULLIFICATION.  $8$  /7>. 

v/^Vj 

stipulated  should  in  «0  future  time  be  included  within  the  lrnt~f  \  + 
its  of  any  state  or  territory.     The  Cherokees,  whenever  Con-       J 
gress    made  provision  therefor,  were  to    be   entitled  to    one 
delegate  in  the  House  of  Representatives.     The  removal  was 
stipulated  to  take  place  within  two  years  from  the  ratification 
of  the  treaty. 

It  was  in  the  spring  of  1838  that  troops  of  the  militia  began 
to  gather  the  Cherokees  into  camps,  preparatory  to  their  re 
moval  to  the  far  west,  but  it  was  late  in  the  summer  before 
the  tribe,  to  the  number  of  16,000,  sorrowfully  departed  from 
their  homes.  The  journey  occupied  five  months.  Although 
the  exiles  were  not  harshly  treated,  yet,  as  a  necessary  conse 
quence  of  such  a  removal,  many  of  them  perished.  Upon 
reaching  their  reservation,  it  was  found  that  not  less  than 
4000  had  died  on  the  way  ! 

The  history  of  the  Chickasaws  and  Choctaws  in  Alabama 
and  Mississippi ;  the  work  of  missionaries  among  them  ;  their 
advancement  in  civilization ;  and  the  successful  efforts  of  the 
whites  to  obtain  their  lands,  were  similar  in  character  to  what 
has  been  said  of  the  Cherokees  and  Creeks,  and  need  not  be 
repeated  here. 

NULLIFICATION.     THE   BLACK   HAWK   AND    SECOND    SEMINOLE 
WARS.     BANK   TROUBLES. 

Jackson's  accession  to  the  presidency  was  marked  by  a  more 
general  dismissal  of  office-holders  and  the  appointment  of 
party  favorites,  than  had  been  practiced  by  any  of  his  prede 
cessors.  Intelligence,  integrity  and  faithfulness  in  the  dis 
charge  of  duties,  were  forced  to  succumb  to  the  unpatriotic 
dictum  that  "  to  the  victors  belong  the  spoils."  Whilst  under 
all  the  presidents  who  preceded  him,  there  had  been  but  64 
persons  removed  from  office,  Jackson,  during  his  eight  years' 
rule,  removed  690,  and  filled  their  places  with  his  political 
partisans. 


39° 


HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1832 


In  the  Congress  of  1832  there  was  introduced  and  carried, 
an  act  for  the  revision  of  the  tariff,  by  which  the  duties  upon 
many  articles  were  increased.  This  gave  great  dissatisfaction 
to  the  cotton-growing  states,  but  it  was  only  in  South  Carolina 
that  open  resistance  was  offered  to  the  collection  of  the  duties. 
A  nullification  ordinance  was  passed  by  a  convention  of  dele 
gates,  who  declared  the  law  to  be  unconstitutional,  and  asserted 
that  the  government  had  no  authority  to  enforce  such  against 
the  will  of  any  state.  A  proclamation  was  then  issued  by 
President  Jackson  announcing  that  he  would  not  permit  the 
law  to  be  disregarded.  Calhoun,  the  vice-president,  resigned 
his  office,  and,  having  been  at  once  elected  to  the  Senate, 
counselled  opposition.  Governor  Hayne,  of  South  Carolina, 
likewise  called  upon  the  people  of  that  state  not  to  heed  the 
proclamation  of  the  president  The  legislature  of  the  state 
passed  laws  forbidding  the  collection  of  the  revenue  within 
its  limits,  threatening  also  to  secede  and  organize  a  separate 
government  if  the  attempt  was  made. 

While  the  government  was  preparing  to  carry  out  measures 
of  coercion,  and  South  Carolina  was  organizing  troops  and 
providing  munitions  of  war,  a  warm  debate  upon  the  principles 
and  powers  of  the  general  government  was  carried  on  in  the 
national  Congress*  DANIEL  WEBSTER,  of  Massachusetts,  and 
Henry  Clay,  of  Kentucky,  were  two  of  the  most  prominent 
speakers  upon  that  occasion.  In  opposition  to  the  doctrine 
of  nullification,  it  was  strongly  declared  that  the  national 
government  was  not  a  mere  compact  of  independent,  sovereign^ 
states,  any  one  of  which  had  power  to  withdraw  from  the  ^ 
Union  at  pleasure,  but  that  the  Constitution  was  the  work  of 
the  people  of  the  states  collectively,  and  that  they  had  con 
ferred  upon  the  Supreme  Court  alone  the  authority  to  decide 
in  cases  of  dispute  between  any  of  the  states  and  the  general 
government. 

The  excitement  was  finally  allayed  by  the  passage  of  a 


1832]  FAILURE    OF  UNITED   STATES  BANK. 


39  ! 


Compromise  Bill,  which  was  introduced  by  Henry  Clay.  It 
provided  for  a  gradual  reduction  of  the  impost  rate  for  the 
succeeding  ten  years,  until  it  should  reach  the  revenue  standard 
contended  for  by  the  opponents  of  the  original  bill. 

The  night  of  the  I3th  day  of  nth  month  (November),  183  2, 
is  memorable  on  account  of  the  occurrence  of  a  wonderful  nat 
ural  phenomenon, — a  great  shower  of  aerolites  or  "shooting- 
stars."  This  remarkable  display  was  witnessed  with  great 
astonishment,  and  even  trepidation,  throughout  all  the  United 
States.  The  meteors,  which  varied  in  size  from  a  moving 
point  of  light  to  globes  of  the  moon's  apparent  diameter, 
were  estimated  to  have  numbered  several  hundred  thousand. 

The  popular  ferment  accompanying  the  nullification  pro 
ceedings  was  scarcely  allayed,  when  a  new  occasion  of  excite 
ment  arose,  growing  out  of  the  action  of  the  president  in 
regard  to  the  Bank  of  the  United  States.  The  bank,  according 
to  its  charter,  was  the  legal  depository  for  the  public  funds ; 
and,  by  a  late  resolution  of  Congress,  that  body  had  expressed 
the  opinion  that  the  funds  were  safe  in  the  bank's  keeping. 
But  the  president  being  of  a  different  opinion,  issued  an  order 
to  the  secretary  of  the  treasury,  Wm.  J.  Duane,  to  remove 
the  government  deposits  to  certain  State  banks.  The  secre 
tary  refusing  to  obey  the  order,  Jackson  dismissed  him  from 
office,  and  appointed  Roger  B.  Taney  in  his  place ;  and  by 
the  latter,  orders  were  issued  to  the  collectors,  forbidding 
them  to  deposit  the  public  funds  in  the  United  States  Bank. 
This  action  resulted  in  the  failure  of  that  institution,  and  sub 
sequently  in  widespread  financial  distress,  the  effects  of  which 
will  be  presently  considered. 

In  the  meantime,  a  war  had  arisen  with  the  Sacs  and  Foxes 
and  the  Winnebagoes  of  Wisconsin.  A  chief  named  BLACK 
HAWK  was  the  leader  in  this  contest,  which  was  brought  about- 
by  an  irruption  of  miners  into  the  territory  of  the  Winneba 
goes,  upon  the  discovery  of  the  Galena  lead-mines.  Red  Bird, 


,9?  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATED  [1835 

a  chief,  retaliated  by  murdering  several  whites,  but  he  and 
others  were  captured  by  the  troops  sent  against  them.  The 
chief  dying  in  prison,  Black  Hawk,  his  friend,  continued  the 
unequal  quarrel.  After  several  battles  had  been  fought,  Black 
Hawk  and  other  chiefs  being  also  taken  prisoners,  were 
brought  to  Washington  and  the  principal  eastern  cities,  that 
they  might  take  note  of  the  power  of  their  captors.  The  Win- 
nebagoes,  with  the  Sacs  and  Foxes,  then  made  a  treaty, 
ceding  their  ten  million  acres  of  land  to  the  government, 
for  an  annuity  and  a  yearly  supply  of  provisions. 

In  1835,  a  second  war  broke  out  with  the  Seminoles,  who 
had  refused  to  emigrate  to  the  trans-Mississippi  lands  which 
had  been  set  apart  for  them.  Many  of  the  troops  sent  against 
them  perished  in  ambuscades,  or  by  diseases  generated  by  the 
miasma  of  the  swamps ;  while  the  Indians,  readily  retreating 
to  their  hiding-places  in  the  Everglades,  were  enabled  to  con 
tinue  the  war  for  seven  years.  A  noted  chief,  OSCEOLA,  was 
captured,  and  being  confined  in  Fort  Moultrie,  died  there  of 
a  fever.  The  war  terminated  after  a  cost  to  the  government 
of  30,000,000  dollars,  beside  the  loss  of  many  lives.-. 

In  the  same  year  that  the  Seminole  war  broke  out,  there 
occurred  a  great  fire  in  the  city  of  New  York,  The  principal 
buildings  in  the  commercial  part  of  the  city  were  destroyed, 
involving  a  loss  of  seventeen  million  dollars.  Since  1835, 
there  have  been  other  very  destructive  fires :  in  Philadelphia 
(1850),  Portland  (1866),  Chicago  (1871),  and  Boston  (1872). 

The  locality  of  the  city  of  CHICAGO  was  first  visited  by 
Marqtiette.  In  1795  tne  United  States  government  purchased 
of  the  Indians  several  acres  of  land  on  which  to  build  a 
stockade  fort.  This  structure  was  destroyed  in  the  war  of 
1812,  and  the  garrison  massacred  by  the  Indians.  Fort  Dear 
born,  on  its  site,  was  then  built:  but  it  was  not  until  1832, 
at  the  time  of  the  Black  Hawk  war,  when  traders  and  others 
followed  a  detachment  of  troops  thither,  that  Chicago  began 


1837]  FINANCIAL    TROUBLES.  393 

to  be  settled.     Its  rapid  growth,  since  then,  has  been  unpre 
cedented  in  the  history  of  American  cities. 


FINANCIAL     TROUBLES     DURING    VAN  BUREN'S    ADMINISTRA 
TION.     HARRISON. 

MARTIN  VAN  BUREN  of  New  York,  who  had  held  the  office 
of  vice-president  the  preceding  four  years,  succeeded  Jackson 
as  president,  in  1837.  The  period  of  his  administration  was 
marked  by  a  great  commercial  revulsion.  The  national 
debt,  it  is  true,  had  been  entirely  paid  off,  and  the  finances 
of  the  country  appeared  to  be  in  a  prosperous  condition.  But 
upon  the  failure  of  the  United  States  Bank,  great  numbers  of 
State  banks  sprang  into  existence,  which,  by  making  liberal 
loans  and  fostering  the  spirit  of  speculation,  caused  the  busi 
ness  of  the  country  to  receive  a  very  unhealthy  stimulus.  A 
principal  object  of  speculation  were  the  public  lands,  the  sales 
of  which  amounted  even  to  millions  of  dollars  in  a  month. 
The  tide  of  immigration  from  Europe  had  begun ;  cities  and 
villages  were  laid  out  by  hundreds,  and  large  improvements 
were  started  by  the  states.  At  the  same  time  foreign  mer 
chandise  was  imported  in  great  quantities,  much  to  the  detri 
ment  of  home  industries. 

But  Congress  having  passed  a  law  to  distribute  among  the 
states  their  respective  proportions  of  the  surplus  treasury  funds, 
the  banks  in  which  these  funds  had  been  deposited,  were 
called  upon  to  pay  the  same.  President  Jackson,  also,  just 
before  his  term  expired,  had  issued  an  order  making  the  pur 
chase-money  of  public  lands  payable  in  specie  only.  This 
double  demand  for  the  funds  on  deposit  and  the  specie,  of 
which  latter  indeed  the  banks  had  very  little,  caused  their 
suspension.  Hence  the  business  of  the  country  was  prostrated 
at  a  blow ;  the  great  improvements  ceased,  and  many  thou 
sand  men  were  thrown  out  of  employment ;  while  suspen- 

R* 


394  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1837 

sions  and  failures  in  business  followed  each  other  quickly. 
The  failures  in  New  York  city  alone,  aggregated  100  million 
dollars. 

By  the  states,  loans  to  the  amount  of  100  million  dollars  had  been 
made,  chiefly  for  the  purpose  of  developing  their  resources  by 
making  internal  improvements.  Several  of  the  states  failed  for 
awhile  to  pay  their  interest  on  the  bonds, — Florida  and  Mississippi 
utterly  repudiating  their  obligations.  As  a  large  part  of  the  money 
had  been  obtained  in  Europe,  the  credit  of  our  nation  received  a 
shock  from  which  it  did  not  recover  for  many  years. 

The  failure  of  the  banks  necessarily  involved  the  government 
itself  in  the  prevailing  financial  embarrassment,  and  accord 
ingly  an  extra  session  of  Congress  was  called  by  President 
Van  Buren,  to  provide  measures  for  meeting  the  exigency. 
He  recommended  the  issue  of  Treasury  notes  to  the  amount  of 
10  million  dollars,  receivable  in  payment  of  the  public  dues. 
Also,  that  there  should  be  an  independent  treasury  and  sub- 
treasuries,  as  depositories  for  the  government  funds.  The 
bill  passed  the  Senate,  but  failed  in  the  House.  A  few  years 
later,  however,  it  received  the  sanction  of  both  houses  of 
Congress. 

In  1837,  a  rebellion  against  the  British  government  broke 
out  in  Canada.  Citizens  of  Vermont  and  New  York  took 
part  with  the  insurgents ;  but  as  the  government  had  no  wish 
to  become  entangled  in  a  war  with  Great  Britain,  a  proclama 
tion  was  issued  by  the  president,  admonishing  those  who  had 
violated  their  duties  as  citizens,  to  return  peaceably  to  their 
homes,  warning  them  of  the  consequences  of  their  failure  so 
to  do.  Happily  the  advice  was  heeded,  and  the  Canadian 
insurrection  soon  came  to  nought. 

Arkansas,  which  had  been  detached  from  Missouri  in  1819, 
was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1836.  MICHIGAN  was  ad 
mitted  in  1837,  the  twenty-sixth  state. 

For  the  purpose  of  making  researches  in  the  Pacific  and 


1841]  WILKES  EXPLORING  EXPEDITION.  395 

Antarctic  regions,  Lieutenant  CHARLES  WILKES,  accompanied 
by  a  number  of  men  of  science,  was  placed  in  command 
of  an  exploring  expedition  of  six  vessels.  They  discovered 
numerous  islands  in  the  Pacific,  and  sailed  along  1700  miles 
of  the  coast  of  the  Antarctic  continent.  After  an  absence  of 
four  years  the  expedition  returned,  having  made  many  dis 
coveries,  not  only  of  lands,  but  in  all  departments  of  natural 
history.  The  "  Narrative  of  the  United  States  Exploring 
Expedition,"  in  five  large  volumes,  was  published  soon  after 
ward  at  the  expense  of  the  government. 

General  Wm.  Henry  Harrison,  of  Ohio,  was  the  choice  of 
the  people  for  president,  to  succeed  Van  Buren.  JOHN  TYLER, 
of  Virginia,  was  elected  vice-president.  This  election  was  char 
acterized  by  more  excitement  and  enthusiasm  than  had  been 
witnessed  upon  any  similar  occasion  preceding.  High  hopes 
were  indulged  by  the  people  generally,  that  the  new  adminis 
tration  would  inaugurate  some  change  of  policy  which  would 
inure  to  the  well-being  of  the  country  at  large.  Harrison  at 
once  called  a  special  session  of  Congress,  but,  being  taken 
suddenly  ill,  he  died  just  one  month  after  the  day  of  inaugu 
ration.  John  Tyler,  the  vice-president,  succeeded  him. 


CHAPTER   XXIX. 

ADMINISTRATIONS    OF    TYLER   AND   POLK.     THE   MEXI 
CAN    WAR. 

1841 — 1849. 


THE   NORTH-EASTERN   BOUNDARY.     ANNEXATION    OF   TEXAS. 

AT  the  special  session  which  had  been  called  by  the  late 
president,  Congress  repealed  the  Sub-Treasury  act,  as  it  was 
believed  that  the  locking  up  of  the  public  funds  exerted  a 
continued  pressure  upon  the  money  market  to  the  prejudice 
of  the  business  of  the  country.  A  general  Bankrupt  Law  was 
also  passed,  but  it  did  not  continue  long  in  force. 

It  had  been  the  general  supposition  that  Tyler  was  in  favor 
of  the  establishment  of  a  National  Bank,  and  it  was  upon  that 
issue,  which  met  with  the  popular  favor,  that  he  and  Harrison 
had  been  elected.  But  when  a  bill  was  passed  by  both  houses 
of  Congress,  chartering  such  a  bank,  the  president  refused  to 
sign  it.  Another  bill  was  passed,  modified  mostly  in  a^ord- 
ance  with  his  suggestions,  but  this  also  was  vetoed.  All  the 
members  of  his  cabinet,  except  Daniel  Webster,  the  secretary 
of  state,  immediately  resigned  their  places. 

Webster  was  then  engaged  in  negotiations  with  the  British 
government  upon  the  subject  of  our  north-eastern  boundary, 
that  question  appearing  likely  to  give  occasion  for  serious  dis 
pute.  On  the  part  of  Great  Britain,  a  special  minister,  Lord 
Ashburton,  was  sent  over  to  the  United  States,  to  arrange  a 
compromise,  and  also  to  settle  the  controversy  which  had 
grown  out  of  the  Canadian-border  disturbances.  Had  not  a 
mutual  spirit  of  conciliation  prevailed,  a  war  between  the  two 
396 


1 824]  THE   NORTH-EASTERN  BOUNDARY.  397 

countries  would  have  been  precipitated.  Commissioners  from 
Maine  and  Massachusetts  being  invited  to  Washington,  to 
confer  with  Webster  and  the  English  minister,  the  boundary 
line  between  Maine  and  New  Brunswick  was  very  soon  ar 
ranged.  Two  other  important  matters  were  provided  for  in 
the  ASHBURTON  TREATY,  namely,  the  rendition  of  fugitives 
from  justice,  and  an  agreement  that  the  two  nations  should 
maintain  armed  vessels  on  the  coast  of  Africa  to  aid  in  the 
suppression  of  the  slave  trade. 

But  the  most  important  event  of  Tyler's  administration  was 
the  annexation  of  TEXAS.  That  State  had  for  years  been 
much  coveted  by  the  people  of  the  Southern  states,  as  a  region 
in  which  slavery  ought  to  flourish.  As  early  as  1819,  a  certain 
James  Long,  accompanied  by  about  75  lawless  adventurers 
from  Mississippi,  entered  the  state,  and  issued  a  proclamation 
calling  upon  the  people  to  unite  their  territory  with  the 
American  Union.  Long  styled  himself  "President  of  the 
Supreme  Council  of  Texas;"  but  his  party,  after  some  of 
them  had  been  killed,  was  quickly  dispersed  by  the  Spaniards. 
A  similar  attempt,  headed  by  a  man  named  Edwards,  was 
made  a  few  years  later,  but  it  resulted  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  first. 

I,  1821,  the  Spanish  authorities  granted  to  MOSES  AUSTIN, 
,pf  Missouri,  the  privilege  of  introducing  300  families  into 
Texas,  one  of  the  conditions  of  the  concession  being  that  the 
immigrants  should  be  Catholics.  Austin  dying,  the  grant  was 
renewed  to  his  son,  who  settled  a  slave-holding  colony  on  the 
Rio  Brazos.  But  in  1824,  Mexico,  to  which  Texas  was  sub 
ject,  became  a  republic,  free  from  the  dominion  of  Spain  ; 
and,  five  years  later,  its  congress  passed  a  decree  manumitting 
every  slave  in  Mexican  territory.  The  hopes  of  the  slave 
holders  of  the  Southern  states  were  dampened  by  this  act, 
and  accordingly,  there  being  no  pretext  for  a  war  with  Mexico, 
propositions  were  made  for  the  purchase  of  Texas.  The  sum 

34 


39S  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1836 

of  one  million  dollars  was  first  offered  by  President  Jackson, 
and  then  five  million  ;  but  both  offers  were  promptly  rejected. 

The  plans  for  acquiring  the  state  by  lawless  irruption  and  by 
purchase,  having  failed,  the  next  method  tried  was  that  of 
colonization  ;  in  other  words,  making  the  country,  by  immi 
gration,  so  decidedly  American, that  its  future  acquisition  would 
be  assured.  Several  joint-stock  companies  were  also  formed  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  who  dealt  in  the  Texan  land-scrip,  and 
hence  the  interested  holders  of  this  scrip  constituted  a  party 
who  were  very  desirous  that  Texas,  whatever  the  means  em 
ployed,  should  be  brought  into  the  Union.  In  the  year  1836, 
the  American  settlers,  finding  themselves  fully  in  power, 
issued  a  declaration  of  independence  of  Mexico;  and  only 
fifteen  days  later,  adopted  a  constitution  establishing  perpetual 
slavery  in  the  province.  Fifty  of  the  57  signers  of  this 
declaration  were  emigrants  from  the  slave  states,  and  only 
three  were  Mexicans  by  birth. 

At  the  time  of  the  declaration,  SANTA  ANNA,  who  had 
made  himself  dictator  of  Mexico,  demanded  that  Texas 
should  return  to  its  allegiance.  This  being  refused,  a  contest 
resulted,  in  the  course  of  which  Santa  Anna  was  taken 
prisoner  by  the  Texans,  who  were  led  by  General  SAMUEL 
HOUSTON.  The  Mexican  general,  however,  was  soon  re 
leased.  Houston  was  inaugurated  president  of  Texas  in  the 
same  year  (1836),  and  the  independence  of  the  state  was 
acknowledged  the  following  year  by  the  United  States  gov 
ernment.  In  the  meantime,  demand  was  made  upon  Mexicq 
for  a  settlement  within  two  weeks,  of  certain  alleged  wrongs 
and  indignities  committed  against  United  States  citizens. 
Mexico  offered  to  submit  them  to  arbitration,  but  our  govern 
ment  appeared  to  be  so  anxious  to  have  a  plea  for  a  war  by 
which  Texas  could  be  secured,  that  it  delayed  four  months 
before  accepting  this  equitable  method  of  settling  the 
difficulty. 


i344]  TEXAS  ANNEXED.  399 

As  to  the  nature  of  these  claims,  their  extravagant  character  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  of  n  million  dollars  demanded 
as  damages,  the  umpire  allowed  the  United  States  less  than  one- 
fifth  of  that  sum.  As  an  instance  :  a  certain  Mexican  schoolmaster 
and  printer,  who  afterward  became  a  naturalized  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  produced  a  bill  of  nearly  $400,000,  for  damages  in 
having  to  leave  his  school  and  press  during  one  of  the  revolution 
ary  struggles  in  Mexico.  The  umpire  cut  down  the  claim  to  one- 
eighth  of  the  original  demand.  Another,  claimed  the  astonishing 
sum  of  over  $8000  for  the  loss  of  56  dozen  of  bottled  porter,  proba 
bly  worth  not  over  $200. 

Such  was  the  aspect  of  Mexican  and  Texan  matters  when 
Tyler  became  president.  But  Mexico  itself  had  claims  for 
damages  against  the  United  States,  which  it,  also,  requested 
should  be  settled  by  arbitration  ;  and  that,  as  the  referees  in 
the  previous  case  had  met  in  Washington,  they  should  in  the 
present  instance  convene  in  the  city  of  Mexico.  A  treaty  to 
this  effect  was  agreed  to,  but  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
refused  to  accept  the  proposition.  A  motion  in  the  Senate  to 
ratify  a  treaty  with  Texas,  providing  for  its  annexation  to  the 
Union,  was  defeated  in  1844;  but,  in  the  following  year, 
was  carried.  This  act,  however,  was  only  secured  by  the 
subterfuge  of  voting  on  a  resolution  of  annexation,  which 
merely  required  a  majority  of  the  votes ;  whereas  the  ratifi 
cation  of  a  treaty  would  have  required  two-thirds  of  the 
whole  number. 

Under  the  old  colonial  charter  of  Rhode  Island,  only  those 
of  its  citizens  owning  a  certain  amount  of  property  were  en 
titled  to  vote.  In  order  to  effect  the  abrogation  of  this  re 
strictive  law,  the  "  Suffrage"  party  arose  in  the  state.  At  the 
election  of  1842,  the  candidate  of  the  "Law  and  Order" 
party  was  defeated,  and  DORR,  the  governor-elect,  took  pos 
session  of  the  state  arsenal,  so  as  to  be  prepared  to  maintain 
his  position.  But  the  militia  being  called  out  by  the  party 
of  Law  and  Order,  the  Suffragist  governor  sought  safety  in 


4oo  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1846 

flight.  Subsequently,  the  Suffragists  were  overpowered  by 
United  States  troops,  and  Dorr  was  arrested,  tried  for  treason, 
and  sentenced  to  imprisonment  for  life.  He  was,  however, 
afterward  pardoned,  and  in  the  meantime  a  new  and  more 
liberal  constitution  was  adopted  by  the  people. 

Iowa  and  Florida  were  admitted  into  the  Union  as  states 
in  1845.  In  tne  same  vear>  JAMES  K.  POLK,  of  Tennessee, 
the  nominee  of  the  party  of  annexation,  was  inaugurated 
president. 

WAR  WITH    MEXICO.       ANNEXATION   OF   CALIFORNIA   AND 
NEW   MEXICO. 

It  was  riot  only  the  territory  of  Texas  which  had  been  cov 
eted  by  many  of  the  people  of  the  United  States,  but  also 
those  parts  of  the  Mexican  possessions  known  as  California  and 
New  Mexico.  An  envoy  who  was  sent  to  Mexico  to  treat  for 
the  latter  provinces,  was  also  instructed  to  offer,  in  part  pay 
for  the  said  territory,  the  extravagant  claims  for  damages 
made  by  United  States  citizens.  But  the  envoy,  Slidell,  not 
being  promptly  received  by  the  Mexicans,  General  ZACHARY 
TAYLOR  was  ordered,  in  the  spring  of  1846,  to  proceed  with 
an  army  to  the  Rio  Grande.  Now,  the  Mexican  government 
asserted  that  the  Nueces  river  (east  of  the  Rio  Grande),  was 
the  true  Texan  boundary,  and  consequently  that  the  United 
States  troops  had  invaded  their  territory. 

A  Mexican  army  which  had  assembled  at  Matamoras,  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande,  having  crossed  that  river,  a 
battle  was  fought  with  the  army  of  General  Taylor,  at  Palo 
Alto ;  but  the  Mexicans  were  badly  defeated.  The  follow 
ing  day  they  were  routed  again,  at  Resaca  de  la  Palma,  and 
General  Taylor  crossing  the  Rio  Grande,  occupied  Mata 
moras.  The  party  of  annexation,  in  Congress,  rejoicing  that 
they  had  forced  the  Mexicans  to  strike  the  first  blow,  and 
being  aided  by  the  votes  of  most  of  the  opposition, — who 


1846]  WAR    WITH  MEXICO.  40  r 

had  not  the  moral  courage  to  stand  by  their  convictions  of 
right, — at  once  declared  war,  voted  money  for  carrying  it 
on,  and  authorized  the  president  to  order  out  an  army  of 
50,000  volunteers. 

Nearly  at  the  same  time  that  war  was  declared  against 
Mexico,  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  Great  Britain  relative  to 
the  Oregon  boundary.  The  settlement  of  the  north-western 
boundary,  like  that  of  the  north-east,  had  long  been  a  subject 
of  negotiation,  and  for  awhile  the  discussion  wore  a  threat 
ening  aspect.  The  United  States,  by  virtue  of  the  treaty  of 
1819  with  Spain,  claimed  all  the  "  Florida"  territory  on  the 
Pacific,  north  of  the  426.  parallel — or  northern  boundary  of 
California — as  far  as  the  Russian  possessions.  Their  claim 
was  also  based  on  the  explorations  of  LEWIS  and  CLARKE 
(1804-1806),  and  the  founding  of  the  colony  of  Astoria.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  claim  of  Great  Britain  rested  upon  the 
fact  of  settlements  having  been  made  by  subjects  of  that 
country,  on  the  north  branch  of  the  Columbia,  and  on  Fra- 
ser's  river.  By  the  treaty  of  1846,  the  49th  degree  of  north 
latitude  was  agreed  upon  as  the  international  boundary-line. 

There  being  now  no  fear  of  a  disagreement  with  Great 
Britain,  the  war  against  Mexico  was  prosecuted  with  vigor. 
General  Taylor  advanced  his  army  to  Monterey,  the  capital 
of  the  province  of  New  Leon,  and  after  a  sanguinary  struggle 
of  three  days^  the  Mexican  general  Ampudia  agreed  to  terms 
of  capitulation.  At  this  juncture  the  existing  government  of 
the  country  was  overthrown  by  Santa  Anna  (who  had  been 
previously  banished  by  his  political  enemies),  whose  influ 
ence  it  was  thought  would  be  exerted  in  favor  of  peace. 
Yet  such,  was  not  the  result,  for  he  soon  appeared  at  the  head 
of  an  army  of  20,000  men  not  far  from  the  American  lines 
at  Buena  Vista.  But,  the  Mexicans  were  again  repulsed, 
and,  abandoning  their  camp  in  great  disorder,  retreated  south 
ward. 

34* 


402  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1847 

In  the  early  part  of  1847,  General  Winfield  Scott,  who  had 
been  appointed  to  the  chief  command  of  the  American  forces, 
landed  an  army  near  Vera  Cruz,  and  began  to  invest  that 
place.  Although  strongly  defended  by  the  fortress  of  San 
Juan  d'Ulloa,  the  city  was  taken  after  a  few  days'  bombard 
ment.  About  3000  bombshells  and  the  same  number  of  round 
shot  were  thrown  into  the  devoted  city  during  its  brief  in 
vestment.  The  loss  of  life  among  the  women,  children  and 
non-combatants  was  reported  to  have  been  greater  than  was 
that  of  the  soldiery.  The  invading  army,  leaving  this  scene 
of  havoc,  began  its  march  westward  toward  the  Mexican 
capital.  At  Cerro  Gordo,  fifty  miles  distant  from  Vera  Cruz, 
they  again  encountered  and  defeated  the  forces  of  Santa 
Anna,  and  thence  advanced  with  little  opposition  to  Puebla. 
At  Contreras,  and  Churubusco,  where  desperate  battles  were 
fought,  Santa  Anna  being  still  further  discomfited,  requested 
an  armistice.  But,  although  granted,  it  continued  in  force 
only  two  weeks. 

The  army  of  General  Scott  then  continued  its  advance. 
Another  fierce  struggle  ensued  at  Molino  del  Rev,  and  a  final 
one  at  Chapultepec,  a  rocky  fortress  close  to  the  capital. 
The  remnant  of  the  Mexican  army,  seeing  that  their  city 
would  be  unable  to  withstand  the  assault  of  the  invaders,  fled 
precipitately,  and  on  the  i4th  day  of  Qth  month  (September) 
the  American  army  occupied  the  capital. 

While  these  events  were  transpiring  in  the  heart  of  the 
Mexican  republic,  its  possessions  in  the  north  were  being  also 
invaded  by  United  States  troops.  An  army  under  General 
KEARNEY  set  out  from  Missouri,  and  crossing  the  plains,  a 
distance  of  a  thousand  miles,  arrived  at  Santa  Fe,  which  city 
was  occupied  without  opposition.  Kearney  issued  a  procla 
mation  declaring  himself  governor  of  the  province,  and  ab 
solving  the  inhabitants  from  their  allegiance  to  Mexico. 
From  Santa  Fe,  a  small  force  under  Colonel  Doniphan  in- 


1848]  WAR    WITH  MEXICO.  4o3 

vaded  the  state  of  Chihuahua,  and  having  defeated  the 
Mexicans  at  Bracito  and  at  the  Pass  of  Sacramento,  they  took 
possession  of  Chihuahua,  the  capital. 

A  small  party  under  Captain  JOHN  C.  FREMONT  was  ex 
ploring  the  territory  of  California  when  the  war  broke  out. 
Fremont  had,  previous  to  this,  explored  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  from  the  South  Pass  to  the  Three  Peaks  of  Colorado, 
and  also  the  Great  Basin  from  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the 
Sierra  Nevada.  Uniting  his  forces  with  the  American  settlers, 
and  co-operating  with  Commodore  Stockton  who  commanded 
the  Pacific  fleet,  they  soon  overcame  the  opposition  of  the 
natives.  In  a  few  months  all  California  was  in  their  possession. 

Early  in  1848  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  Mexico.  New 
Mexico  and  California  were  ceded  to  the  United  States,  and 
the  Rio  Grande  accepted  by  Mexico  as  the  boundary  sepa 
rating  it  from  Texas.  In  return,  the  United  States  agreed  to 
pay  Mexico  15  million  dollars,  and  to  assume  the  claim  for 
damages,  amounting  to  three  and  a  half  million  dollars,  said 
to  be  due  to  United  States  citizens.  The  money  cost  of 
the  Mexican  war  was  about  100  million  dollars.  Although 
comparatively  few  soldiers  of  the  Americans  were  killed  in 
battle,  yet  thousands  died  of  the  vomito  and  other  diseases. 
At  Perote,  there  were  2600  American  graves  of  the  victims  of 
disease,  and  at  the  city  of  Mexico,  the  deaths,  for  awhile,  were 
1000  a  month.  For  nearly  two  years  as  many  as  140,000 
men  were  employed  as  soldiers,  teamsters,  artificers,  etc.,  and 
hence  the  otherwise  useful  labor  of  many  of  these  was  lost  to 
the  country. 

WILLIAM  JAY  remarks  on  the  needlessness  of  this  war  :  "  It  is 
impossible  to  resist  the  conviction  that,  by  honest  negotiation,  we 
might  have  become  the  masters  of  these  territories  without  crime, 
without  human  butchery,  and  at  a  far  less  cost  in  money  than  the 
sum  we  have  paid.  *  *  We  should,  however,  take  a  most  errone 
ous  and  limited  view  of  the  cost  of  this  war  to  the  United  States, 
were  we  to  confine  our  estimates  to  the  millions  which  have  been 


404  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1848 

expended  in  its  prosecution,  or  to  the  personal  sufferings  it  has 
occasioned.  Before  we  can  sum  up  the  total  cost,  we  must  add  to 
the  blood,  and  the  groans,  and  the  treasure  we  have  bartered  for 
victory  and  conquest,  the  political  and  moral  evils  the  war  has  be 
queathed  to  the  nation — evils  as  extensive  as  the  bounds  of  the 
Republic,  and  whose  effects  upon  the  happiness  of  individuals  will 
continue  to  be  felt  when  time  shall  be  no  more." 

During  the  exciting  debates  in  Congress  upon  the  acquisi 
tion  of  California  and  New  Mexico,  a  proposition  was  intro 
duced  by  David  Wilmot,  of  Pennsylvania,  which  provided 
that  neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude  should  be  per 
mitted  in  any  ceded  territory.  This  amendment  to  the  bill 
was  termed  the  "  Wilmot  Proviso,"  and  the  discussion  which 
was  provoked  thereby,  made  it  apparent  that  the  true  object 
of  the  war  on  the  part  of  the  pro-slavery  party  was  not  to 
avenge  imputed  wrongs  on  the  part  of  Mexico,  but  simply  to 
add  to  the  extent  of  slave  territory.  The  Proviso  passed  the 
House,  but  failed  in  the  Senate. 

Just  before  the  ratification  of  the  treaty  with  Mexico, 
rumors  of  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California,  reached  the 
eastern  states.  The  shining  particles  were  first  noticed  (1847) 
by  a  laborer  who  was  engaged  at  work  upon  a  mill-race  on  one 
of  the  tributaries  of  the  river  Sacramento.  Intense  excitement 
followed  the  intelligence,  and  shortly,  thousands  of  emigrants 
for  the  Eldorado  of  the  West  were  on  their  way, — some  going 
in  caravans  across  the  plains  and  over  the  Rocky  Mountains; 
others  by  ship  to  the  isthmus  of  Panama,  and  thence  by  the 
Pacific ;  and  others  again  by  the  long  route  around  Cape 
Horn.  SAN  FRANCISCO  at  once  became  the  favorite  city  and 
port.  Speculation  was  rife  in  the  land,  and,  along  with 
the  intense  thirst  for  gold,  gambling,  intemperance  and 
ruffianism  prevailed  there  for  a  number  of  years.  Silver  and 
quicksilver  were  also  discovered,  while  the  teeming  products 
of  a  fertile  soil  soon  passed  out  through  the  "Golden  Gate" 
to  other  less  favored  quarters. 


[848] 


GADSDEN  PURCHASE. 


405 


The  TREATY  OF  GUADALOUPE-HIDALGO  (1848)  had  resulted 
in  the  cession  by  Mexico  of  545,000  square  miles  of  territory. 
By  the  "Gadsden  Purchase"  of  1853,  the  Pima  silver  region 
and  Mesilla  Valley,  south  of  the  Gila  river,  comprising  45,000 
square  miles,  were  also  acqujred  upon  payment  of  the  further 
sum  of  ten  million  dollars. 


Wisconsin  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1848.  The 
presidential  election  of  that  year  resulted  in  the  choice  of 
General  Zachary  Taylor,  of  Louisiana,  for  the  chief  office. 
MILLARD  FILLMORE,  of  New  York,  was  chosen  vice-president. 


CHAPTER    XXX. 

TAYLOR.     FILLMORE.     PIERCE.     BUCHANAN. 
1849 — 1861. 


THE   SLAVERY   AGITATION. 

FOR  twelve  years  following  the  passage  of  the  Missouri 
Compromise  act,  the  subject  of  slavery  was  not  agitated  in 
Congress.  Public  opinion,  however,  at  the  North,  was  by 
no  means  at  rest,  and  the  Anti-Slavery  party  or  Abolitionists 
were  yearly  gaining  in  numbers.  The  American  Anti-Slavery 
Society  was  organized  at  Philadelphia,  in  1833,  with  ARTHUR 
TAPPAN  as  its  first  president.  A  few  years  previous,  Benjamin 
Lundy,  of  Baltimore,  had  published  a  small  journal,  "The 
Genius  of  Universal  Emancipation,"  while  William  Lloyd 
Garrison,  in  Boston,  issued  "The  Liberator."  During  the 
presidency  of  Jackson,  prohibition  memorials  began  to  be 
presented  to  Congress,  while  papers  and  illustrated  publica 
tions,  designed  to  generate  a  feeling  in  favor  of  emancipation, 
were  mailed  to  the  slave-owners  and  others  at  the  South. 
When  Jackson  recommended  to  Congress  that  a  law  should 
be  passed  prohibiting  the  use  of  the  mails  for  the  latter  pur 
pose,  the  excitement  became  intense ;  exhibiting  itself  at  the 
North,  in  violent  attacks  upon  the  Abolitionists,  and  at  the 
South,  in  the  breaking  open  of  some  of  the  post-offices  and 
the  destruction  of  the  unwelcome  documents. 

The  debates  upon  the  annexation  of  Texas  and  upon  a  war 
with  Mexico,  showed  that  the  extension  of  slavery  was  viewed 
406 


1 850]  THE  SLA  VER  Y  A  GIT  A  TION.  40  7 

with  favor  by  the  administrations  of  Tyler  and  Polk.  The 
opponents  of  slavery  now  brought  the  subject  forward  as  one 
which  should  properly  find  expression  through  the  medium  of 
the  ballot-box.  The  Abolitionists,  or  those  who  were  in  favor 
of  the  utter  extinction  of  slavery,  were  comparatively  few  in 
number.  The  Free-Soil  party,  although  equally  persuaded 
with  the  Abolitionists  of  the  moral  wrong  of  the  slave  system, 
favored  the  recognition  of  the  constitutional  limits  of  slavery 
as  established  by  the  Missouri  Compromise,  but  were  opposed 
to  the  creation  of  new  slave  states.  At  the  presidential  elec 
tion  of  1840,  this  party  polled  but  7600  votes;  but  in  1848 
their  candidate  received  the  suffrages  of  nearly  300,000 
citizens. 

In  1849,  California,  which  had  rapidly  increased  in  popu 
lation,  following  the  discovery  of  gold,  adopted  a  constitu 
tion  prohibiting  slavery,  and  asked  to  be  admitted  as  a  state. 
Such  a  result  of  the  acquisition  of  Mexican  territory  had  not 
been  looked  for  by  the  advocates  of  slavery.  There  were 
violent  debates  in  Congress,  with  threats  of  secession,  and 
protests  that  as  slavery  was  a  domestic  institution,  it  should 
not  be  interfered  with.  The  Anti-Slavery  party,  on  their  side, 
also  advocated  separation,  declaring  that  a  republic  like  the 
United  States  could  not  with  any  consistency  support  so  un 
righteous  a  custom  as  slavery,  and  that  the  obligation  on  the 
part  of  the  Northern  states  to  return  fugitive  slaves  ought  not 
to  be  assented  to. 

The  first  message  of  President  Taylor  to  Congress,  and  the 
only  one  which  he  lived  to  submit,  recommended  that  Cali 
fornia  should  be  at  once  admitted  into  the  Union.  Also,  that 
NEW  MEXICO  and  UTAH  should  be  organized  as  territories, 
and,  when  prepared  to  be  received  into  the  Union,  that  they 
be  allowed  to  settle  the  question  of  slavery  to  suit  themselves. 
A  few  months  later,  on  the  gth  day  of  7th  month  (July),  1850— 
the  day  of  the  great  fire  at  Philadelphia — the  president  died. 


4o8  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1850 

The  following  day,  Millard  Fillmore,  the  vice-president,  was 
inaugurated  as  chief  magistrate. 

In  the  meantime  a  compromise  measure,  which,  on  account 
of  the  diversity  of  its  provisions  was  styled  the  Omnibus  Bill, 
was  introduced  by  Henry  Clay,  and,  after  a  lapse  of  several 
months,  was  passed.  It  provided  for  the  admission  of  Cali 
fornia;  the  organization,  without  mention  of  slavery,  of  the 
territories  of  New  Mexico  and  Utah  ;  the  adjustment  of  tne 
Texas  boundary ;  the  abolition  of  slavery  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  and  the  enactment  of  a  Fugitive  Slave  Law,  more 
stringent  in  its  provisions  than  was  the  act  of  1787.  The 
legislatures  of  some  of  the  free  states  had  forbidden  the  use 
of  their  jails  for  the  confinement  of  fugitive  slaves,  and  jus 
tices  of  the  peace  had  refused  to  take  any  action  in  such  cases ; 
but,  by  the  new  bill,  these  were  referred  to  the  adjudication 
of  United  States  commissioners,  specially  appointed.  Henry 
Clay  was  really  an  opponent  of  slavery,  but  he  was  also  an 
earnest  advocate  of  federal  union,  and  hence,  being  anxious 
to  allay  the  slavery  agitation,  was  willing  to  compromise  a 
good  principle  by  favoring  a  temporizing  meas'ure. 

Utah,  or  "  Deseret,"  as  it  was  first  called,  was  organized  as 
a  territory,  with  BRIGHAM  YOUNG,  an  elder  of  the  Mormons, 
as  its  first  governor.  The  Mormon  sect  was  founded  in  1827 
by  JOSEPH  SMITH,  a  native  of  Vermont,  who  pretended  that 
he  had  received  revelations  from  heaven,  by  means  of  which 
he  was  put  in  possession  of  a  number  of  golden  plates  covered 
with  Egyptian  characters,  which  he  alone  could  decipher. 
The  "Book  of  Mormon,"  framed  therefrom,  contained  the 
tenets  of  the  new  religion.  Smith  and  several  hundred  fol 
lowers  settled  in  Missouri ;  but  becoming  obnoxious  to  the 
inhabitants,  they  took  up  their  abode  in  Illinois,  where  they 
founded  a  city  called  Nauvoo,  on  a  bluff  overlooking  the  Mis 
sissippi.  The  "prophet"  being  slain  in  a  trouble  which  arose, 
the  Mormons  again  took  to  flight.  Led  by  several  of  their 


1852]  THE    KANSAS-NEBRASKA   BILL.  409 

chosen  elders,  they  crossed  the  Rocky  Mountains  and  settled 
in  the  Great  Basin  of  UtahT  chiefly  at  their  city  of  Great  Salt 
Lake,  which  was  founded  in  1847.  Polygamy,  a  favorite 
domestic  institution  of  the  Mormon  sect,  being  opposed  to 
the  law  of  the  land,  the  territory  of  Utah  has  not  yet  been 
received  as  a  state  of  the  Union. 


THE   KANSAS-NEBRASKA  BILL.     TROUBLES   IN   KANSAS. 

General  Scott  was  nominated  by  the  Whig  party  for  presi 
dent,  in  1852  }  but  the  popular  vote  was  given  in  favor  of  his 
Democratic  opponent — FRANKLIN  PIERCE,  of  New  Hampshire. 
W.  R.  KING,  of  Alabama,  was  elected  vice-president. 

The  most  important  measure  of  Pierce's  administration  was 
the  bill  to  organize  the  territories  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska. 
They  comprised  that  part  of  the  original  Louisiana  purchase 
west  of  Missouri  and  north  of  the  parallel  of  36°  30';  and 
consequently,  in  accordance  with  the  provisions  of  the  Mis 
souri  Compromise,  slavery  was  excluded  therefrom.  Portions 
of  it  had  been  allotted  to  sundry  Indian  tribes  who  had  re 
moved  from  the  territory  north-west  of  the  Ohio,  but  their 
presence  was  not  desired  by  the  white  settlers  who  now  began 
to  locate  in  those  parts. 

A  bill  to  organize  the  territories  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska 
was  introduced  into  the  Senate  by  STEPHEN  A.  DOUGLAS,  of 
Illinois.  An  important  clause  of  the  bill  was  a  provision  for 
the  repeal  of  the  Missouri  Compromise.  It  provided  that  any 
territory,  no  matter  whether  north  or  south  of  the  compromise 
parallel,  should  be  privileged,  upon  adopting  a  constitution 
and  becoming  a  state,  either  to  permit  or  to  exclude  the  in 
stitution  of  slavery^.  Numerous  petitions  were  presented  to 
Congress,  requesting  that  body  not  to  make  any  alteration  in 
the  lavr  as  it  stood.  Nevertheless,  the  bill,  after  a  long  dis- 
s  35 


4io  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1856 

cussion,  received  the  sanction  of  Congress  and  the  signature 
of  the  president. 

Upon  the  passage  of  the  bill,  in  the  spring  of  1854,  active 
measures  were  taken  by  adherents  of  both  the  Free-Soil  and 
Pro-Slavery  parties,  to  people  the  territory  of  Kansas  with  set 
tlers  favoring  their  respective  views.  Aid  societies  were  formed 
in  several  of  the  Northern  states  to  assist  emigrants  to  reach 
the  territory  and  to  establish  homes  there.  At  the  elections 
held  for  the  purpose  of  choosing  a  delegate  to  Congress  and 
to  elect  members  to  the  territorial  legislature,  each  party  claimed 
that  its  candidates  were  successful.  The  members  chosen  by 
the  Pro-Slavery  party  met,  but  their  assembly  being  declared 
by  the  Free-Soil  party  illegal,  their  acts  were  repudiated  on 
the  ground  that  armed  men  from  Missouri  had  controlled  the 
polls. 

A  convention  of  Free-Soil  men  then  assembled  at  Topeka 
and  framed  a  constitution  rejecting  slavery,  which,  being 
submitted  to  the  people,  was  ratified  by  them.  Meanwhile, 
outrages  of  every  kind  were  frequent, — murders,  robberies, 
illegal  assaults  and  destruction  of  property, — in  all,  or  most 
of  which,  the  Free-Soil  settlers  were  the  worst  sufferers,  The 
delegate  to  Congress  was  also  refused  a  seat  by  that  body , 
but  a  committee  being  appointed  to  proceed  to  Kansas,  the 
charge  was  established  that  the  elections  had  been  carried  by 
fraud.  Order  was  partially  restored  in  the  territory  in  1856, 
when  JOHN  W.  GEARY  was  appointed  governor  by  the  presi 
dent.  At  that  time  the  whole  country  was  thrown  into  a  fever 
of  excitement  upon  receiving  intelligence  of  a  brutal  assault 
made  by  Preston  Brooks,  a  member  from  the  South,  upon  the 
person  of  Charles  Sumner,  senator  from  Massachusetts.  It 
occurred  while  the  Senate  was  in  session. 

At  the  next  presidential  election  (1856),  there  were  presented 
the  nominees  of  three  political  parties:  that  of  the  Repub 
licans,  the  opponents  of  the  extension  of  slavery  into  the 


1857]  EMANCIPATION  SCHEME.  41 1 

territories;  that  of  the  Democrats,  who  favored  slavery  in  the 
territories,  if  it  was  so  willed  by  the  people ;  and  that  of  the 
American,  or  so-called  ''Know-Nothing"  party,  who  were 
opposed  to  popery  and  foreign  influence.  JAMES  BUCHANAN, 
of  Pennsylvania,  the  candidate  of  the  Democrats,  was  elected. 
JOHN  C.  BRECKENRIDGE,  of  Kentucky,  was  chosen  vice- 
president.  Buchanan  had  served  in  both  houses  of  Congress, 
had  been  minister  to  Russia  and  to  Great  Britain,  and  also 
secretary  of  state  under  President  Polk. 

But  the  Kansas  troubles  were  not  yet  ended.  Governor 
Geary  having  resigned,  the  president  appointed  as  his  sue 
cessor,  ROBERT  J.  WAJ^KER,  of  Mississippi.  Walker  ordered 
a  new  election  for  delegate  to  Congress  and  for  members  to 
compose  a  territorial  legislature.  The  Free-Soil  candidates 
were  elected,  In  the  meantime,  however,  delegates  of  the 
Pro-Slavery  party  met  at  Lecompton,  and  framed  a  constitution 
adopting  slavery.  This  they  submitted  to  the  people,  and 
claiming  that  it  was  ratified,  sent  it  to  Congress;  but  that 
body  having  ordered  a  new  election,  the  Lecompton  constitu 
tion  was  rejected  by  a  heavy  majority; 

The  decision  of  the  Supreme  Court,  announced  by  Chief- 
justice  Taney  (1857),  in  the  case  of  the  negro  Dxed-Scott — 
to  wit,  that  slaves  in  every  part  of  the  national  territory  were 
to  be  accounted  property — tended  to  intensify  the  feeling  at 
the  North  in  opposition  to  slavery.. 

MINNESOTA  was  received  into  the  Union  in  1857;  OREGON, 
the  thirty-third  state,  in  1859. 


THE  SCHEME   OF    COMPENSATED    EMANCIPATION.     SECESSION. 

The  efforts  made  by  the  government  to  carry  out  the  pro 
visions  of  the  Fugitive  Slave  law,  produced  a  feeling  of  con 
tinual  irritation  on  the  part  of  the  North,  which  was  in  no  wise 


4I2  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1857 

lessened  by  the  condition  of  affairs  in  Kansas,  where  the  con 
tests  between  the  two  political  parties  frequently  resulted  in 
bloodshed.  Hence  it  became  increasingly  evident  to  think 
ing  minds  that  a  far  more  terrible  struggle  would  ensue, 
filling  the  whole  land  with  mourning  and  desolation,  unless 
endeavors  were  quickly  put  forth  to  compass  the  difficulty. 
Unquestionably,  slavery  must  be  abolished,  but  as  yet  the 
methods  of  Unconditional  Abolition  and  of  Gradual  Eman 
cipation  found  few  supporters.  The  Liberia  scheme  of  Col 
onization  had  withdrawn  but  a  few  thousands  of  freed  blacks 
from  the  American  soil,  and  did  not  materially  affect  the 
question  of  slavery.  But  the  plan  of  Compensated  Bwianci- 
pation,  which  was  now  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  people, 
appeared  to  offer  an  equitable  solution  of  the  formidable 
problem. 

The  friends  of  this  movement  contended  that  the  founders 
of  the  Republic  had  not  established  a  union  in  fact,  however 
it  had  been  so  declared  in  name,  and  that,  before  the  sections 
North  and  South  could  be  confederated  in  one  compact  and 
homogeneous  nationality,  the  true  union  of  the  states  would 
have  to  be  won.  The  method  by  which  this  was  to  be  at 
tained  was  to  remove  the  cause  of  the  estrangement,  to  wit, 
slavery;  but  furthermore,  this  boon  of  union  and  peace  was 
vfOrt\\payingfor,  if  it  could  be  secured  in  no  other  way.  In 
brief,  what  would  the  friends  of  the  slave,  of  union,  and  of 
peace,  be  willing  to  give,  to  avert  disunion  and  civil  strife  ? 

It  was  proposed  by  the  advocates  of  this  measure,  in  order 
to  secure  the  immediate,  and  at  the  same  time  peaceful, 
liberation  of  the  slaves,  that  emancipation  should  take  the 
form  of  a  national  act.  In  making  this  proposition  they  did 
not  concede  that  the  slave-owner  was  really  and  morally  en 
titled  to  any  pay  for  the  human  chattels  whom  he  held,  but 
they  believed  that  it  would  be  preferable  to  concede  such  a 
point  rather  than  that  the  slaves  should  either  continue  many 


1857]  EMANCIPATION  SCHEME.  4! 3 

years  in  servitude,  or  that  their  fetters  should  be  stricken  off 
through  a  fratricidal  strife  which  must  bring  numberless  evils  in 
its  train.  They  therefore  proposed  that  "  all  the  public  lands 
west  of  the  Mississippi  river  to  the  Pacific  ocean  should  be 
set  apart  for  defraying  the  expense  of  the  complete  and  imme 
diate  emancipation  of  all  the  slaves  in  the  Union,  and  for  pro 
viding  a  fund  for  their  education  and  elevation  after  their 
manumission." 

As  has  been  shown  in  the  preceding  pages,  the  moral 
responsibility  for  the  existence  of  slavery  in  the  United 
States,  rested  upon  the  North  as  well  as  the  South.  Northern 
ship-owners  and  merchants  participated  in  the  gains  of  the 
slave  traffic,  while  cotton,  tobacco  and  rice,  the  products  of 
slave  labor,  largely  passed  through  the  hands  of  northern  fac 
tors,  yielding  them  lucrative  profits.  Likewise,  the  merchants 
of  the  North  either  imported  or  made  almost  all  the  manu 
factured  goods  which  were  used  by  the  South.  Therefore, 
said  the  advocates  of  compensation,  as  the  North  had  formed 
an  alliance  with  the  South  in  the  fostering  and  perpetuation 
of  slavery,  whereby  the  system  had  become  nationalized,  so 
should  it  be  willing  to  pay  its  proportion  of  the  price  of  ex 
tinguishing  slavery,  whatever  might  be  the  pecuniary  expense 
involved.  In  carrying  out  the  plan  of  national  indemnifica 
tion,  a  brotherly  partnership  would  be  formed  and  a  glorious 
consummation  arrived  at,  which  would  bless  equally  both  sec 
tions  of  the  Republic. 

Estimating  the  number  of  slaves  at  4,000,000,  and  assuming 
the  sum  of  $250  as  an  equivalent  of  value  for  each  man, 
woman  and  child,  the  purchase-price  of  their  freedom  would 
have  been  a  thousand  million  dollars.  The  sale  of  the  pub 
lic  lands  would  have  paid  the  interest  and  gradually  the 
principal  of  this  total,  and  have  left  a  large  sum  to  be  devoted 
to  the  education  and  improvement  of  the  subjects  of  manu 
mission.  The  money  received  would  also  have  served  as  a 

35* 


4i4  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1860 

stimulus  to  Southern  labor  and  manufactures.  Possibly  this 
view  of  the  case  may  not  have  been  acceptable  to  many  of 
the  manufacturers  of  the  North.  However  that  may  be,  the 
scheme  of  Compensated  Emancipation — of  which  ELIHU 
BURRITT,  of  Connecticut,  was  the  foremost  advocate — was 
received  with  but  little  favor  by  the  people  at  large.  The 
nation  was  not  prepared  to  listen  to  such  calm  and  philan 
thropic  counsel,  and,  choosing  to  follow  the  bent  of  passion, 
the  price  it  paid  in  the  end  has  been  the  proof  of  its  folly. 

The  border  troubles  had  scarcely  ended,  when,  in  the  loth 
month  (October),  1859,  arash  undertaking,  having  for  its  object 
the  liberating  of  the  slaves  by  a  general  uprising  on  their  part, 
was  attempted  by  a  certain  JOHN  BROWN  and  his  sons,  who 
had  been  prominently  engaged  in  the  Kansas  troubles.  Ac 
companied  by  a  very  few  followers,  they  crossed  the  Potomac 
at  Harper's  Ferry,  expecting  to  be  joined  by  the  blacks. 
Not  receiving  the  immediate  co-operation  which  they  had 
looked  for,  they  took  possession  of  one  of  the  shops  of  the 
United  States  Arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry,  but  were  very 
soon  overpowered  and  captured  by  government  troops.  They 
were  handed  over  to  the  authorities  of  Virginia,  and  were 
tried  and  executed  before  the  end  of  the  year. 

The  presidential  election  of  1860,  was  one  of  momentous 
import.  The  Democratic  and  pro-slavery  party  which  had 
mostly  controlled  the  government  from  the  beginning  of 
the  century,  perceived  that  public  opinion  had  undergone  a 
change  and  that  their  power  was  likely  to  be  disturbed  when 
submitted  to  the  decision  of  the  ballot.  At  the  Democratic 
nominating  convention  which  was  held  at  Charleston,  the 
Southern  delegates  withdrew,  and  named  as  their  candidate 
John  C.  Breckenridge,  of  Kentucky.  Those  who  remained, 
nominated  Stephen  A.  Douglas.  The  American  party  nomi 
nated  John  Bell,  of  Tennessee ;  the  Republicans,  ABRAHAM 
LINCOLN,  of  Illinois.  The  latter  receiving  a  plurality  of  votes 


1861]  SECESSION. 


415 


was  elected.     HANNIBAL  HAMLIN,  of  Maine,  was  chosen  vice- 
president. 

There  had  been  many  undisguised  declarations  on  the 
part  of  people  at  the  South,  that  if  Lincoln  was  elected,  it 
would  be  the  signal  for  the  states  of  that  section  to  withdraw 
from  the  Union.  Accordingly,  no  sooner  was  the  result  of 
the  election  known,  than  the  legislature  of  South  Carolina 
called  a  convention,  which,  on  the  2oth  day  of  the  i2th 
month  declared  by  a  unanimous  vote  that  "the  union  now 
subsisting  between  South  Carolina  and  other  states,  under 
the  name  of  the  United  States,  is  hereby  dissolved."  In  the 
First  month  of  1861,  Mississippi,  Florida,  Alabama  and 
Georgia,  followed  the  example  set  by  South  Carolina,  and 
shortly  afterward  the  rest  of  the  Southern  states  cast  their  lot 
for  secession.  In  the  Second  month,  delegates  from  the  se 
ceded  states  met  at  Montgomery,  Alabama,  and  having 
adopted  a  constitution  similar  to  that  of  the  United  States, 
they  organized  the  "Confederate  States  of  America,"  with 
JEFFERSON  DAVIS,  as  president,  and  ALEXANDER  H.  STEPHENS, 
vice-president.  Richmond,  Virginia,  was  designated  the 
capital.  The  senators  and  representatives  from  the  South  in 
the  national  Congress,  resigned  their  seats,  and  most  of  the 
officers  in  the  army  from  that  section  also  gave  in  their  resig 
nations,  and  joined  the  cause  of  the  Confederacy. 


CHAPTER    XXXI. 

PRESIDENCY   OF   LINCOLN.     THE   CIVIL   WAR. 
1861—1865. 


THE  states  of  the  South  had  now  carried  into  practice  the 
right  which  had  been  always  claimed  by  the  Anti-Federalist 
or  States-Rights  party,  namely,  that  any  state,  might,  in  ac 
cordance  with  the  terms  of  the  federal  constitution,  withdraw 
from  the  Union,  without  hindrance  on  the  part  of  any  or  all 
of  the  remaining  states.  But  the  majority  of  the  people  were 
imbued  with  the  opinion  that  the  compact  between  the  various 
states  was  intended  to  be  more  national  in  its  character — that 
it  was  not  a  simple  federation  or  league  of  sovereign  states — 
and  therefore  that  there  could  be  no  severance  of  any  of  the 
integral  parts  of  the  Republic.  Such  also  was  the  opinion  of 
President  Lincoln.  Concerning  slavery,  he  said^  in  his  inaugu 
ral  address  (1861) :  "  I  have  no  purpose,  directly  or  indirectly, 
to  interfere  with  the  institution  of  slavery  in  the  states  where 
it  exists.  I  believe  I  have  no  lawful  right  to  do  so,  and  I  have 
no  inclination  to  do  so." 

But  the  institution  of  slavery  was,  nevertheless,  the  impel 
ling  cause  of  secession,  and  for  its  perpetuation  the  states  of 
the  South  had  thus  united  together.  They  also  believed  that 
their  sympathizers  at  the  North  were  so  many  in  number, 
that  coercion  would  not  be  seriously  attempted.  But  when,  a 
month  after  Lincoln's  inauguration,  a  fleet  was  ordered  to  the 
relief  of  Fort  Sumter  in  Charleston  Harbor,  and  the  bom 
bardment  of  the  fort  by  Confederate  batteries  was  followed  by 
416 


i86i]  BULL   RUN.  417 

its  surrender,  there  arose  a  sudden  outburst  of  excitement  at 
the  North,  and  tumultuous  outcries  for  vengeance.  Through 
out  the  land  the  press  and  the  pulpit  joined  in  the  mad  demand 
for  war.  Had  those  who  called  themselves  "  leaders  of  the 
flock"  exerted  themselves  as  peacemakers,  the  war  might  still 
have  been  averted.  But,  their  fealty  to  Christ  was  overborne 
by  the  passion  of  the  hour ;  and  hence  it  was  that  the  churches 
both  North  and  South,  untrue  to  the  peaceful  testimonies 
of  the  gospel,  became  the  strongest  bulwarks  of  this  wicked 
strife. 

A  call  for  75,000  volunteers  was  at  once  issued  by  the  gov 
ernment.  The  foremost  of  these,  in  passing  through  Balti 
more  en  route  to  the  national  capital,  4th  month  (April)  i9th, 
were  mobbed  by  Southern  sympathizers,  and  several  lives 
lost  on  each  side.  About  the  same  time,  the  government 
arsenal  at  Harper's  Ferry  was  seized  by  the  Confederates,  and 
great  quantities  of  arms  and  ammunition  were  secured.  To 
prevent  the  navy  yard  and  the  war  vessels  at  Norfolk  from 
falling  into  the  same  hands,  they  were  destroyed  by  the  United 
States  officers  stationed  there.  The  place  was  then  evacuated. 

The  first  important  engagement  of  the  war  south  of  the  Po 
tomac,  occurred  near  Fortress  Monroe,  on  Hampton  Roads, 
where  General  Butler  was  in  command.  This  engagement, 
known  as  the  battle  of  Big  Bethel,  resulted  in  defeat  to  the 
Union  troops.  But  a  far  greater  check  to  the  cause  was  ex 
perienced,  when  the  main  army  of  volunteers,  commanded  by 
General  McDowell,  met  the  Confederates  under  General 
Beauregard,  at  Bull  Run,  a  few  miles  south-west  of  Washing 
ton,  7th  month  (July)  2ist.  A  panic  seized  the  Union  troops, 
who  fled  in  disorder  toward  the  capital,  leaving  a  great  quan 
tity  of  artillery  and  stores  on  the  field.  About  3500  of  their 
number  were  killed,  wounded  or  missing. 

In  consequence  of  the  discomfiture  at  Bull  Run,  it  became 
apparent  to  the  president  and  Congress  that  the  suppression 
s* 


4I3  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1861 

of  the  rebellion  by  force  of  arms  would  require  a  much  larger 
levy  of  militia  than  had  been  anticipated,  and  accordingly  a 
call  was  issued  for  an  army  of  500,000  men.  General  Scott, 
at  his  own  request,  was  relieved  from  the  chief  direction  of 
the  armies,  and  his  place  was  filled  by  General  McCLEL- 
LAN,  who  also  had  immediate  command  of  the  army  of  the 
Potomac.  A  part  of  this  army,  under  Generals  McCall  and 
Stone,  was  stationed  on  the  Maryland  side  of  the  river  not  far 
from  Edwards'  Ferry.  Upon  hearing  that  Leesburg  had  been 
evacuated  by  the  Confederates,  the  Union  army  crossed  the 
Potomac,  opposite  the  steep  declivity  of  Ball's  Bluff,  but  were 
surprised  by  the  Confederates  and  routed.  Upon  reaching 
the  water,  many  of  the  Unionists  who  attempted  to  escape  by 
swimming,  were  shot ;  others,  being  swept  away  by  the  cur 
rent,  in  the  darkness  were  drowned.  The  battle  of  Ball's 
Bluff  occurred  on  the  2oth  of  loth  month  (October),  1861. 

In  west  Virginia,  the  Unionists,  under  General  Rose- 
crans,  were  mostly  successful.  In  Missouri,  although  the 
number  of  slaves  was  less  than  one-tenth  of  the  population, 
the  bias  of  the  people  was  not  decidedly  in  favor  of  the 
Union.  The  pro-slavery  politicians  were  active  and  influential, 
and  by  their  exertions  a  secession  governor  (C.  F.  Jackson) 
was  elected.  General  Harney  was  sent  to  take  command  of 
the  Western  Department,  and  having  established  at  St.  Louis 
his  headquarters,  that  city  was  kept  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
Secessionists.  He  was  soon  succeeded  by  General  Fremont, 
and  the  latter  again  by  General  Halleck.  Missouri  was  the 
scene  of  much  partisan  or  guerilla  warfare.  In  a  desperate 
battle  which  was  fought  at  Wilson's  Creek,  near  Springfield, 
General  Lyon,  in  command  of  the  Union  army,  was  killed. 
The  state  was  cleared,  for  awhile,  of  Confederate  troops,  by  an 
army  under  General  Curtis. 

The  national  navy  having  been  greatly  increased,  the 
Southern  coast  from  Virginia  to  Texas  was  blockaded  ;  while 


1 862]  MASON  AND  SLIDELL.  419 

gun -boats  were  constructed  for  the  Western  rivers,  to  carry  on 
offensive  operations  against  the  fortifications  which  the  Con 
federates  quickly  erected  thereon.  Before  the  end  of  1861,  the 
Confederate  defences  at  Port  Royal  entrance,  South  Carolina, 
were  captured  by  the  fleet  of  Captain  Dupont,  assisted  by  the 
land  forces  of  General  Sherman;  and  in  the  2d  month  of 
1862,  an  expedition  under  General  Burnside  and  Commodore 
Goldsborough,  captured  the  forts  on  Roanoke  Island.  The 
Confederate  flotilla  withdrew  to  Elizabeth  City,  and  being 
followed  by  the  Union  fleet,  was  there  burnt  to  escape  cap 
ture.  Nearly  at  the  same  time  Fort  Henry  on  the  Tennessee 
river,  and  Fort  Donelson  on  the  Cumberland,  were  taken  by 
the  gun-boats  of  Commodore  Foote,  assisted  by  the  army  of 
GENERAL  GRANT  ;  and  a  few  weeks  later,  Nashville,  the 
capital  of  Tennessee,  was  occupied  by  the  Union  army. 
ANDREW  JOHNSON,  formerly  chief  magistrate  of  the  state, 
was  appointed  military  governor. 

The  Confederates  being  anxious  to  obtain  a  recognition  of 
their  cause  on  the  part  of  Great  Britain  and  France,  James 
M.  Mason  and  John  Slidell  were  appointed  to  lay  their  case 
before  those  powers.  To  elude  the  blockade,  the  two  ambas 
sadors  made  their  way  first  to  Cuba,  and  then  by  another 
steamer,  the  Trent,  took  passage  for  St.  Thomas — intending 
to  leave  for  England  in  the  next  packet  from  that  island.  But 
on  their  way  out,  when  not  far  north  of  the  island  of  Cuba, 
the  Trent  was  intercepted  by  the  National  steamer  San  Jacinto, 
in  command  of  Captain  Charles  Wilkes.  Mason  and  Slidell 
were  taken  on  board,  and  sent  to  Fort  Warren  in  Boston 
harbor.  Much  elation  was  manifested  by  the  people  of  the 
North  at  this  important  capture  ;  but  the  president,  aware  of  the 
fact  that  it  was  a  violation  of  the  very  principle  concerning  the 
rights  of  neutrals,  for  which  America  had  formerly  contended 
with  England,  did  not  endorse  the  act.  Hence,  when  a  demand 
was  made  by  the  British  government  for  the  restoration  of  the 


420  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1862 

captives,  they  were  given  up  and  a  suitable  acknowledgment 
made;  not,  however,  without  some  delay,  during  which  pre 
cautionary  preparations  for  war  were  made  by  Great  Britain, 
involving  that  country  in  an  expenditure  of  several  million 
dollars. 

Often  have  the  embers  of  war  been  fanned  into  a  flame  by  the 
reckless  representations  and  evil  surmisings  of  the  daily  press  ! 
When  Louis  Napoleon  elevated  himself  to  the  imperial  throne  of 
France,  the  alarm  was  sounded  by  the  daily  journals  of  England, 
encouraged  by  reports  from  their  correspondents  at  Paris,  that  the 
country  was  in  imminent  danger  from  the  sinister  designs  of  the  up 
start  ruler.  The  British  parliament  thereupon  assumed  a  bellige 
rent  attitude,  and  passed  an  act  for  enrolling  80,600  militia.  Mean 
while,  lest  the  journals  should  really  push  the  country  into  war, 
earnest  measures  on  the  part  of  sober-minded  people  were  put  for 
ward  to  stay  the  foolish  panic.  "  One  of  the  expedients  adopted," 
says  Burritt,  "was  the  instituting  of  a  direct  correspondence  be 
tween  50  of  the  largest  towns  in  Great  Britain,  and  the  same  number 
of  towns  in  France.  Manuscript  communications,  signed  by  a  large 
number  of  influential  citizens,  deprecating  most  earnestly  the  senti 
ments  of  the  British  press  toward  the  French  government  and 
people,  were  sent  across  the  channel,  and  were  responded  to  most 
generously.  One  of  these  '  Friendly  Addresses,'  as  they  were 
called,  was  signed  by  4000  of  the  first  merchants  and  bankers  of 
London.  All  these  communications  asked  the  French  people  not 
to  regard  the  sentiments  expressed  towards  them  by  the  British 
journals  as  the  sentiments  of  the  English  nation.  A  few  weeks 
passed  away,  and  this  bubble  of  suspicion  burst." 

In  the  3d  month  (March),  1862,  the  Confederate  iron-clad 
ram,  the  Merrimack,  came  out  of  Norfolk  harbor,  and  attacked 
the  National  fleet  which  was  lying  in  Hampton  Roads.  The 
Cumberland  received  such  a  severe  blow  from  the  beak  of  the 
Merrimack,  that  she  began  at  once  to  fill  with  water.  All 
who  could,  made  their  escape;  but  the  dead,  the  sick  and 
wounded,  to  the  number  of  about  100,  were  engulfed  be 
neath  the  waters.  The  Congress  was  set  on  fire  by  red-hot 
shot  from  the  Merrimack,  and  the  other  National  vessels  were 


1862]  McCLELLAN  S  REPULSE.  421 

obliged  to  withdraw.  The  Merrimack  returned  to  Norfolk ; 
but  the  next  day,  there  arrived  in  Hampton  Roads,  an  iron 
vessel  of  novel  construction,  lying  very  low  in  the  water  and 
surmounted  with  a  turret.  It  was  called  the  Monitor.  This 
vessel  engaged  the  Merrimack,  which,  becoming  considerably 
disabled,  withdrew  from  the  encounter.  Norfolk  was  shortly 
afterward  taken  possession  of  by  National  troops  under  Gen 
eral  Wool. 

A  movement  upon  Richmond,  the  Confederate  capital, 
being  determined  on,  General  McClellan  decided  on  making 
the  approach  by  way  of  the  James  river  peninsula.  Large 
bodies  of  troops  and  military  stores  were  embarked  for  For 
tress  Monroe,  and  early  in  the  4th  month  (April),  the  army 
began  its  march  toward  Yorktown.  The  Confederates  under 
Generals  Magruder  and  Johnston,  slowly  retreated,  while 
McClellan's  forces  continued  up  the  peninsula,  until  they  had 
arrived  within  a  few  miles  of  Richmond,  where  General 
ROBT.  E.  LEE  was  in  command.  At  Fair  Oaks  a  battle  was 
fought,  which  resulted  in  severe  loss  to  both  sides.  Finally, 
in  the  latter  part  of  the  6th  month  (June),  there  ensued  a 
series  of  sanguinary  engagements,  lasting  six  days,  at  the  end 
of  which  time  McClellan,  being  continuously  repulsed,  gained 
the  cover  of  his  gun-boats  at  Harrison's  Landing  on  the  James 
river.  The  attempt  of  the  Nationals  had  ended  in  total 
failure. 

In  the  meantime,  the  Shenandoah  valley  was  the  scene  of 
active  operations.  A  National  army  under  Generals  Pope  and 
Banks,  endeavored  to  keep  the  Confederates  there  in  check, 
and  prevent  them  from  uniting  their  forces  with  the  army  of 
General  Lee.  But  in  several  battles  and  many  skirmishes 
which  took  place,  the  Confederate  forces  of  Generals  Ewell 
and  "Stonewall"  Jackson  were  mainly  victorious.  Lee's 
army  also,  relieved  by  the  withdrawal  of  McClellan,  pressed 
northward,  and  when  near  the  Potomac,  defeated  the  army  of 

36 


422  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1862 

Pope  at  the  second  Battle  of  Bull  Run,  or  Manassas.  The 
Nationals  then  withdrew  within  the  fortifications  around 
Washington.  Shortly  after,  the  president  issued  a  call  for 
several  hundred  thousand  additional  troops. 

Lee's  army,  exultant  at  their  late  successes,  having  crossed 
the  Potomac  by  the  fords  in  the  vicinity  of  Point  of  Rocks, 
prepared  to  advance  either  against  Washington  or  into  Penn 
sylvania.  But  at  South  Mountain  and  Antietam,  their  onward 
march  was  checked  by  the  troops  of  McClellan,  and  on  the  i9th 
of  the  9th  month  (September),  Lee  re-crossed  the  Potomac. 
Evacuating  Harper's  Ferry,  which  Jackson's  army  had  recently 
captured,  Lee  retreated  up  the  Shenandoah  valley.  General 
Burnside  was  placed  in  command  of  a  National  army,  and 
directed  to  make  a  third  advance  upon  Richmond,  but  being 
signally  defeated  in  a  battle  fought  at  Fredericksburg  near  the 
close  of  the  year,  he  withdrew  into  winter-quarters  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Rappahannock. 

In  the  West,  the  National  cause,  subsequent  to  the  occupa 
tion  of  Forts  Henry  and  Donelson,  had  been  more  successful. 
The  Confederates,  evacuating  their  strong  position  at  Columbus, 
on  the  Mississippi  below  Cairo,  intrenched  themselves  at 
Island  Number  Ten,  still  farther  down  the  river.  Under  the 
superintendence  of  General  Beauregard,  the  island  fortifica 
tions  had  been  placed  in  a  condition  for  defence  which  was 
considered  almost  impregnable.  After  they  had  sustained  a 
bombardment  of  several  weeks  by  the  gun-boats  of  Commo 
dore  Foote,  the  land  forces  of  General  Pope  cut  a  canal  through 
a  bend  of  the  river  so  as  to  flank  the  position,  and  the  garrison 
was  then  obliged  to  surrender.  General  Beauregard,  however, 
escaped,  with  a  considerable  body  of  troops,  and  moved  to 
the  relief  of  the  army  of  General  A.  S.  Johnston,  at  Shiloh 
and  Pittsburg  Landing,  on  the  Tennessee.  The  Union  army, 
under  General  Grant,  was  temporarily  repulsed  there,  but 
being  joined  by  reinforcements  under  General  Buell,  they 


1 862]  CAREER    OF  THE  ALABAMA.  423 

drove  the  Confederates  to  their  defences  at  Corinth,  an  im 
portant  railway  junction  in  north-eastern  Mississippi.  Here, 
on  the  3(1  and  4th  days  of  the  xoth  month  (October),  a  great 
battle  was  fought,  which  resulted  in  the  further  retreat  of  the 
Confederates  southward.  Rosecrans,  the  Union  commander, 
returned  into  Kentucky,  and  on  the  last  day  of  the  year  en 
gaged  and  defeated  the  Confederate  army  under  General 
Bragg  at  Murfreesboro. 

Meanwhile,  the  fleet  of  Commodore  Foote  had  continued 
down  the  Mississippi,  captured  Fort  Pillow,  and  on  the  6th 
day  of  the  6th  month  (June),  had  taken  possession  of  Memphis. 
New  Orleans  was  already  in  possession  of  the  Nationals, 
having  been  captured  by  the  fleets  of  Admirals  Farragut  and 
Porter,  after  several  severe  encounters  with  Confederate  gun 
boats,  and  a  terrific  bombardment  of  Forts  Jackson  and  St. 
Philip.  General  Butler,  commander  of  the  troops,  was  placed 
in  charge  of  the  city.  Fort  Pulaski,  the  chief  defence  of 
Savannah,  and  the  forts  on  the  Florida  coast,  at  Fernandina, 
Jacksonville  and  St.  Augustine,  were  likewise  given  up  to  the 
National  forces.  Fort  Pickens,  at  the  entrance  of  Pensacola 
bay,  had  not  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Confederates. 

The  latter,  although  not  in  a  condition  to  maintain  a  regu 
lar  navy  on  the  ocean,  succeeded,  with  the  co-operation  of 
sundry  ship-builders  and  sympathizers  in  England,  in  fitting 
out  a  number  of  privateers,  which  proved  very  destructive  to 
the  commercial  vessels  of  the  North.  The  principal  of  these 
cruisers  were  the  Nashville,  Sumter,  Florida,  Shenandoah  and 
Alabama.  Of  these,  the  Alabama,  under  Captain  Semmes, 
achieved  the  greatest  notoriety.  For  a  year  and  a  half,  avoid 
ing  contact  with  armed  vessels,  it  continued  its  career  of 
burning  the  merchant-ships  belonging  to  the  Unionists.  Owing 
to  the  fact  of  its  being  a  British  vessel,  manned  chiefly  by 
British  subjects,  and  armed  and  supplied  in  a  British  port, 
the  losses  by  its  depredations  were  the  occasion  of  a  heavy 


424  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1862 

claim  upon  Great  Britain,  as  will  be  hereafter  considered. 
The  Alabama  was  finally  captured  in  the  English  Channel,  off 
the  harbor  of  Cherbourg,  by  the  National  vessel  Kearsarge. 

During  1862,  Congress  passed  a  law  abolishing  slavery  in 
the  District  of  Columbia.  As  a  conciliatory  measure  toward 
the  slave-holders  of  the  border  states,  a  plan  of  partial  and 
gradual  emancipation,  with  compensation  for  the  slaves,  also 
passed  Congress,  and  received  the  approval  of  the  president, 
who  believed  that  it  would  detach  the  border  slave-labor  states 
from  the  Confederacy,  and  hence  speedily  effect  an  end  of  the 
war.  There  was  likewise  proposed  a  plan  for  colonizing  the 
freedmen  somewhere  on  the  American  continent. 

But  those  plans  not  meeting  with  any  strong  demonstrations 
of  approval,  the  president,  after  considerable  hesitation, 
agreed  to  issue  a  proclamation  decreeing  absolute  emancipation 
to  the  slaves  in  any  state  which  should  be  in  rebellion  on  the 
first  day  of  the  year  1863.  He  also  declared  it  would  be  the 
purpose  of  the  government  not  to  repress  any  efforts  which 
the  slaves  might  make  to  secure  their  freedom.  It  was  sup 
posed  that  the  slaves  would  take  advantage  of  the  procla 
mation  to  band  together  and  aid  in  putting  down  the  rebel 
lion.  The  foregoing  preliminary  proclamation  was  issued  the 
22d  day  of  Qth  month  (September),  1862.  None  of  the  states 
having  accepted  its  provisions  within  the  one  hundred  days 
allowed  therefor,  there  accordingly  appeared,  on  the  first  day 
of  the  ensuing  year,  the  Proclamation  of  Universal  Emanci 
pation. 

During  the  first  few  years  of  the  war,  large  loans  for  defray 
ing  the  expenses  thereof,  had  been  authorized  by  Congress. 
But  the  great  and  increasing  expenditures  which  the  war 
entailed,  the  decline  in  revenue  and  public  credit,  caused 
a  distrust  of  paper  money  and  a  consequent  appreciation 
in  the  value  of  coin.  The  banks  thereupon  suspended  spe 
cie  payments  the  last  day  of  the  year  1861.  For  the  pur- 


1863]  GETTYSBURG.  425 

pose  of  providing  a  national  currency,  Congress  passed  a  bill 
early  in  the  following  year,  authorizing  the  issue  of  legal  ten 
der  Treasury  notes ;  while,  to  increase  the  revenue,  taxes  were 
imposed  on  goods  imported  and  manufactured,  on  incomes, 
bills  of  exchange,  legal  papers,  etc.  Finally,  in  1863,  a  law 
was  enacted  for  the  formation  of  National  banks  (their  cur 
rency  guaranteed  by  the  government),  in  lieu  of  the  former 
state  banks. 

In  the  spring  of  1863,  forty-eight  counties  of  northern  and 
western  Virginia,  not  sympathizing  with  the  secession  of  the 
eastern  section  of  the  state,  formed  a  provisional  government, 
and  were  admitted  into  the  Union  under  the  title  of  the  state 
of  WEST  VIRGINIA.  Kansas  had  been  admitted  .in  1861. 
NEVADA,  the  thirty-sixth  state,  followed  in  1864. 

General  Hooker,  who  had  superseded  Burnside  in  command 
of  the  army  of  the  Potomac,  crossed  the  Rappahannock  with 
his  army,  purposing  to  flank  the  army  of  Lee  at  Fredericks- 
burg.  The  battle  of  Chancellorsville  on  the  2Qth  of  the  4th 
month  (April)  ensued,  terminating  again  in  disaster  to  the 
army  of  the  assailants,  of  whom  over  12,000  were  killed 
and  wounded  :  the  Confederate  loss  was  not  quite  so  heavy. 
Hooker  retreated  across  the  river,  and  the  armies  for  a  short 
time  resumed  their  former  respective  positions. 

Lee  being  then  reinforced  by  the  army  of  General  Long- 
street,  took  the  offensive,  and  leaving  his  position  at  Freder- 
icksburg,  crossed  the  Potomac,  advanced  to  Hagerstown,  and 
thence  up  the  Cumberland  valley  to  Chambersburg.  This 
sudden  invasion  produced  great  consternation  at  the  North, 
and  the  militia  of  Pennsylvania  were  called  for  in  large  num 
bers.  General  Meade  was  placed  in  command  of  the  Union 
army,  in  place  of  Hooker.  At  Gettysburg,  on  the  first  three 
days  of  the  7th  month  (July),  was  fought  a  decisive  battle — 
the  most  important  of  the  war — ending  in  the  defeat  of  the 
Confederates,  and  their  retreat  across  the  Potomac. 

36* 


426  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1864 

After  the  capture  of  New  Orleans  (1862),  the  flotillas  of 
Farragut  and  Porter  ascended  the  Mississippi,  and,  co-ope 
rating  with  the  army  of  General  Grant,  laid  siege  to  the  strong 
fortifications  of  Vicksburg,  where  the  Confederate  general, 
Pemberton,  was  in  command.  The  attempt  at  that  time  was 
not  successful;  but,  during  all  the  first  six  months  of  1863, 
unintermitted  endeavors  to  effect  its  capture  were  carried  on, 
and  at  last  on  the  4th  day  of  the  yth  month  (the  day  after  the 
battle  of  Gettysburg)  the  garrison  of  Vicksburg,  nearly  ex 
hausted  by  starvation,  surrendered  to  the  Nationals.  Port 
Hudson,  farther  down  the  river,  the  last  possession  of  the 
Confederates  on  the  Mississippi,  surrendered  to  the  army  of 
General  Banks  five  days  after  the  fall  of  Vicksburg. 

The  army  of  Rosecrans  had  remained  for  six  months  at  Mur- 
freesboro,  when,  being  reinforced  by  cavalry,  an  advance  was 
made  south-eastward  toward  Chattanooga.  General  Bragg, 
the  Confederate  commander,  retreated  to  that  place,  and  gave 
battle  to  his  pursuers  at  the  Chickamauga  creek,  in  the  imme 
diate  neighborhood  (9th  mo.  2oth).  Rosecrans,  although  de 
feated,  took  possession  of  Chattanooga.  Here  General  Grant 
assumed  command,  and  being  joined  by  the  divisions  of 
Hooker  and  Sherman,  the  Confederates,  after  a  severe  strug 
gle,  were  driven  from  the  commanding  positions  of  Lookout 
Mountain  and  Missionary  Ridge. 

During  most  of  the  year,  Charleston  was  closely  besieged 
by  land  and  naval  forces  under  the  command  of  General 
Gilmore  and  Admirals  Dupont  and  Dahlgren.  Forts  Wagner 
and  Gregg  on  Morris  island,  were  taken,  and  Fort  Sumter  was 
battered  to  pieces.  The  city  itself  was  occasionally  bom 
barded,  and,  although  not  captured,  blockade  running  was 
entirely  prevented. 

In  the  early  part  of  1864,  General  Grant  was  made  general  - 
in-chief  of  all  the  armies.  General  Banks,  with  the  army  in 
Louisiana,  moved  up  the  Red  river  toward  Shreveport,  but  he 


1864]  GRANTS  ADVANCE.  427 

was  defeated  and  driven  back  to  New  Orleans.  Fort  Pillow 
was  re-taken  by  a  large  force  of  Confederate  cavalry  under 
General  Forrest.  Its  capture  was  marked  by  signal  atrocity, 
as  no  quarter  was  given  to  the  garrison,  half  of  whom  were 
colored  troops :  men,  women  and  children  were  indiscrimi 
nately  massacred. 

The  army  of  the  Potomac  was  placed  under  command  of 
General  Meade,  although  personally  superintended  by  General 
Grant.  In  the  5th  month  (May),  the  final  advance  was  made 
on  Richmond.  Immediately  after  crossing  the  Rapidan,  the 
march  of  the  Nationals  was  disputed  by  the  army  of  Lee. 
The  terrible  battle  of  "  The  Wilderness"  ensued,  but  although 
Grant's  loss  was  very  heavy,  he  continued  on,  and  a  second 
great  battle  was  fought  at  Spottsylvania  Court-house.  Lee 
again  fell  back,  and  the  Nationals  advanced  to  the  Chicka- 
hominy.  The  battle  of  Cool  Arbor  followed,  resulting  in  a 
fearful  sacrifice  of  life  on  the  part  of  the  Nationals,  who  then 
advanced  to  the  James  river,  and,  part  of  them  crossing  that 
stream,  effected  a  junction  with  Butler's  army  at  Bermuda 
Hundred,  6th  mo.  (June)  i5th.  The  capture  of  Petersburg  by 
assault  was  attempted,  but  its  intrenchments  proved  to  be  so 
strong,  that  regular  siege  works  were  ordered  to  be  constructed. 

While  Grant  was  thus  besieging  Petersburg,  Lee  endeavored 
to  effect  a  withdrawal  of  at  least  a  portion  of  his  antagonists, 
by  ordering  General  Early  to  make  an  invasion  north  of  the 
Potomac.  The  Union  general,  Hunter,  had  made  a  raid 
up  the  Shenandoah  valley  to  Lynchburg,  and  thence  moved 
into  West  Virginia,  so  that  Early  found  his  way  nearly  unob 
structed.  Martinsburg  and  Harper's  Ferry  being  evacuated 
by  the  Nationals,  Early  advanced  with  confidence  into  Mary 
land,  but  was  checked  at  the  battle  of  the  Monocacy.  A  por 
tion  of  his  army  meanwhile  moved  toward  the  Susquehanna, 
and  arriving  at  Chambersburg,  threatened  the  destruction  of 
the  town  unless  $200,000  tribute  was  paid,  to  insure  its  safety. 


428  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1865 

The  demand  being  refused,  the  town  was  set  on  fire,  and  one- 
half  of  it  laid  in  ashes.  The  raiders  then  hurried  back  to 
Virginia,  and  were  followed  by  a  large"  cavalry  force  under 
General  Sheridan.  Early  was  defeated  at  Winchester,  and 
retreating  toward  Staunton,  was  followed  by  Sheridan's  cav 
alry,  who,  in  retaliation  for  the  destruction  of  Chambersburg, 
wantonly  burned  large  numbers  of  barns  in  the  Shenandoah 
valley. 

Sherman,  with  an  army  of  nearly  100,000  men,  having  left 
Chattanooga,  defeated  General  Hood,  and  occupied  Atlanta, 
9th  mo.  (September)  4th.  Leaving  General  Thomas  to  carry 
on  the  campaign  in  Tennessee,  Sherman  prepared  to  evacuate 
Atlanta;  but,  before  departing  on  his  "march  to  the  sea," 
ordered  the  city  to  be  set  on  fire.  Two  hundred  acres  of 
ground,  covered  with  buildings,  were  thus  destroyed,  a  mili 
tary  band  playing  triumphantly  while  the  fiery  desolation  was 
at  its  height !  Sherman  then  advanced  through  Georgia  to 
Savannah,  which  place  he  also  captured.  The  harbor  de 
fences  of  Mobile  had,  in  the  meantime,  been  taken  by  the 
fleet  of  Farragut,  so  that  at  the  end  of  1864,  Wilmington 
(North  Carolina),  and  Charleston,  were  the  only  seaports  of 
consequence  in  possession  of  the  Confederates. 

Abraham  Lincoln  was  re-elected  president,  and  Andrew 
Johnson,  of  Tennessee,  was  chosen  vice-president  (1864). 
Congress,  in  response  to  the  message  of  the  president,  passed 
the  1 3th  Amendment  to  the  constitution,  which  prohibited 
slavery  forever  in  the  republic.  It  was  the  constitutional 
supplement  to  the  Proclamation  of  Emancipation,  and  was 
duly  ratified  by  the  legislatures  of  three-fourths  of  the  states, 
as  required  by  law. 

In  the  early  part  of  1865,  the  army  of  Sherman  took  up  its 
march  through  the  Carolinas,  advancing  first  from  Savannah 
to  Columbia.  The  Confederate  general,  Wade  Hampton, 
upon  leaving  Columbia,  had  given  orders  that  all  the  cotton 


1865]  SHERMAN'S  MARCH.  429 

should  be  taken  into  the  streets  and  burned.  But,  a  large 
part  of  the  beautiful  city  itself  was  laid  in  ashes.  Whether  this 
wanton  act  was  to  be  attributed  to  the  Nationals,  or  whether 
to  the  Confederates  themselves,  is  a  matter  of  controversy. 
Charleston,  being  now  flanked  by  Sherman  and  invested  by 
the  fleet,  was  set  on  fire  by  the  Confederate  garrison,  who 
then  hurried  northward  to  join  the  army  of  Johnston,  and  to 
oppose  Sherman's  further  advance.  Wilmington,  likewise, 
after  Fort  Fisher,  its  strong  defence,  had  been  taken  by  the 
fleet,  was  evacuated.  Meanwhile,  Sherman's  army  swept  on 
ward  into  North  Carolina,  its  broad  track  of  thirty  miles  in 
width  being  marked  by  utter  desolation.  Food  for  his  great 
army,  forage  for  the  horses,  fresh  animals  to  replace  the  worn- 
out  ones,  were  all  taken  from  the  inhabitants.  In  the  latter 
part  of  the  3d  month  (March),  1865,  Goldsboro  in  eastern 
North  Carolina  was  reached,  and  there  Sherman  established 
his  headquarters. 

In  the  2d  month,  three  commissioners  from  the  Confederate 
States,  one  of  whom  was  Alexander  H.  Stephens,  vice-president 
of  the  Confederacy,  were  appointed,  to  try  to  negotiate  terms 
of  peace.  President  Lincoln,  and  secretary  of  state,  SEWARD, 
met  the  commissioners  at  Fortress  Monroe.  The  Confed 
erates,  although  wishing  peace,  still  insisted  on  a  recognition 
of  their  independent  rights,  which  the  president  replied 
would  not  be  accorded  them.  The  discussion  was  amicably 
proceeded  with,  but,  like  several  other  preceding  attempts  in 
the  same  direction,  it  failed  to  accomplish  its  purpose. 

In  the  3d  month,  while  Sherman  was  marching  in  the  di 
rection  of  Goldsboro,  Sheridan  with  a  strong  force  of  cavalry, 
left  Winchester,  ascended  the  Shenandoah  valley  to  Staunton, 
and  advancing  thence  toward  Richmond,  destroyed  the  rail 
road  communications  of  the  Confederates  west  and  north  of 
that  city.  Lee  then  essayed  to  break  through  Grant's  army 
before  Petersburg,  in  order  to  effect  a  junction  with  the  army 


43o  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1865 

of  Johnston  in  North  Carolina.  Failing  in  his  attempt,  he  at 
once  sent  word  to  Richmond  that  that  city  must  be  evacuated. 
Davis  and  his  cabinet,  and  others  who  had  been  actively  en 
gaged  in  the  rebellion,  left  the  city ;  while  General  Ewell, 
after  ordering  the  destruction  of  the  cotton  and  tobacco,  which 
were  stored  in  several  large  warehouses,  departed  with  his 
troops.  The  conflagration,  however,  spread  widely,  so  that 
the  principal  business  portion  of  the  city  was  destroyed.  The 
arsenal  was  also  set  fire  to,  and  the  Confederate  iron-clads 
were  blown  up.  On  the  3d  day  of  the  4th  month  (April) 
the  Union  troops  entered  the  late  capital  of  the  Confederacy. 
On  the  Qth  instant,  Lee,  after  further  futile  endeavors  to  es 
cape,  surrendered  the  shattered  remnant  of  his  army  to  Gen 
eral  Grant.  Two  weeks  later,  Johnston  surrendered  to  Sher 
man,  and  the  rebellion  came  to  an  end. 

Before  the  latter  event  transpired,  a  terribly  tragic  event 
occurred  at  Washington,  being  the  assassination  of  the  presi 
dent,  at  a  theatre.  Secretary  Seward  was  also  attacked  by 
an  accomplice,  and  narrowly  escaped  death.  The  assassin  of 
the  president,  John  Wilkes  Booth,  an  actor  by  profession, 
was  pursued  and  killed,  and  several  of  his  co-conspirators 
being  captured,  were  tried,  convicted  and  executed. 

Jefferson  Davis  was  taken  prisoner  near  Macon,  Georgia, 
while  in  the  act  of  escaping  from  a  party  in  pursuit.  Pie  was 
sent  thence  to  Fortress  Monroe,  but  after  a  confinement  of 
a  year  and  a  half,  was  released  without  trial.  Andrew  John 
son,  the  vice-president,  assumed  the  chief  magistracy  upon 
the  death  of  President  Lincoln. 

No  more  than  a  mere  outline  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion 
has  been  given.  There  were  numerous  cavalry  raids,  hun 
dreds  of  battles  and  skirmishes,  and  many  encounters  upon 
the  rivers  and  ocean,  of  which  no  mention  can  here  be  made. 
Neither  has  anything  been  said  of  the  work  of  the  Sanitary 
Commission  ;  of  the  employment  of  colored  soldiers  in  the 


i865] 


WHAT  THE    WAR   COST. 


431 


army ;  of  the  conscription,  and  the  disturbances  in  Northern 
cities  in  opposition  to  it ;  of  the  great  riot  in  New  York  and 
the  massacre  of  negroes ;  of  the  terrible  privations  and  suffer 
ings  of  the  Union  prisoners  confined  in  the  warehouses  and 
prison-pens  of  the  South,  and,  in  a  less  degree,  of  the  suffer 
ings  of  Confederates  at  the  North,  together  with  a  hundred 


GROWTH  OF  THE  NATIONAL  DEBT. 

Years.                                                                                                                                                  Millions. 

i366 

186" 

2773 

186.1 

iSic 

l86q 

1119 
In  1870. 

1  86^ 

1861 

1860 
1855 
1850 
1845 
1840 
1835 
1830 
1825 
1820 
1816 
1815 
1814 
In  1870.                                             1813 

—64 
—35 
—63 
-i5 
-5 
o 
-48 
—83 
91 

127 

99 
8  1 
-56 
—45 
-48 
—53 

PUBLIC    SCHOOLS,                                                    jg^ 
#64,000,000.                                                           l8lo 

WHEAT   CHOP, 

$245,000,000. 

WAR: 

Army;  Navy;  Annua   Pensions; 
Interest  on  War-Debt, 
$245,000,000. 

R.U  M: 

st  cost  ;  also,  cost  in  Prisons, 
mpers,  Tribunals,  Asylums  j 
*ss  of  Wages  and  Products, 
$1,300,000,000. 

other  of  the  dire  consequences  of  the  war.  A  few  statistics 
will  merely  be  adduced  for  the  purpose  of  comparison,  that 
we  may  see  whether  the  whole  country  would  not  have  been  a 
great  gainer  if  it  had  adopted  the  plan  of  compensated  eman 
cipation,  and  extirpated  the  evil  of  slavery  at  a  money  price 


432  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1865 

far  greater  even  than  the  thousand  million  of  dollars  which  it 
was  proposed  should  be  paid. 

The  whole  number  of  men  enrolled  in  the  Northern  army 
was  about  2,650,000.  It  is  estimated  that  300,000  men  of  each 
army  perished  in  battle,  or  by  disease  in  camps  and  hospitals ; 
and  that  the  number  crippled,  or  permanently  disabled  by 
disease,  amounted  altogether  to  400,000.  This  would  make  a 
total  of  1,000,000  men  as  the  actual  loss  to  the  country. 

The  money  cost  of  the  war,  to  both  sides,  is  estimated  at  six 
thousand  million  dollars  ($6,000,000,000).  In  order  to  meet 
the  yearly  interest  on  the  National  Debt,  which  was  increased 
from  60  millions  in  1860,  to  2600  millions  in  1865,  the 
people  were  taxed  to  an  extent  to  which  the  taxation  by  the 
British  crown,  in  the  preceding  century,  bore  no  comparison. 
Stamps  were  required  on  deeds,  leases,  receipts,  checks  and 
many  other  documents,  beside  on  a  great  variety  of  manufac 
tured  goods.  A  moiety  of  the  debt  incurred  for,  and  the  loss 
sustained  by,  the  war,  would  have  paid  for  all  the  slaves; 
would  have  provided  all  the  illiterate  whites  and  blacks  of  the 
South  with  the  requisite  facilities  for  obtaining  an  education  ; 
would  have  built  half-a-dozen  railways  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Pacific,  and  would  have  paid  for  the  completion  of  as  many 
water-ways  connecting  the  streams  of  the  Mississippi  valley 
with  those  of  the  Atlantic  slope  and  the  Great  Lakes.  In 
brief,  had  wise  and  peaceful  counsels  prevailed,  we  might  have 
been  a  really  united  people,  and  thus  the  fearful  record  of  loss 
in  men  and  in  money,  in  social  and  political  morality,  would 
not  be  now  what  we  know  too  well  that  it  is. 


LIBRA  It  i 

UNIVERSITY   OF 

^  CALIFORNIA.^! 


CHAPTER    XXXII. 

ADMINISTRATIONS  OF  JOHNSON  AND   GRANT. 
1865 — 1876. 


RECONSTRUCTION.      IMPEACHMENT    OF   PRESIDENT   JOHNSON. 
ALASKA. 

THE  administration  of  Andrew  Johnson  was  not  a  tranquil 
one.  Holding  views  as  to  the  policy  to  be  pursued  in  the 
re-organization  of  the  late  rebellious  states,  different  from 
those  of  the  majority  in  Congress,  many  of  the  measures 
passed  by  that  body  received  his  veto.  The  president  ap 
pointed  provisional  governors  for  seven  of  the  Southern  states, 
and  the  same  year  (1865)  conventions  in  five  of  them  ratified 
the  constitutional  amendment  as  to  slavery,  formed  constitu 
tions  for  their  respective  states,  and  ordered  the  election  of 
representatives  to  Congress.  These  elections  mostly  resulted 
in  returning  to  office  men  who  had  taken  a  leading  part  in  the 
rebellion.  Congress  refused,  under  the  powers  granted  it  to 
"judge  of  the  elections,  returns  and  qualifications  of  its  own 
members,"  to  admit  them.  It  judged  that  they  were  not  quali 
fied  to  take  their  seats  as  legislators,  by  reason  of  the  animosity 
which  they  had  exhibited  to  the  general  government. 

Upon  the  appointment  of  a  committee  of  fifteen,  known  as 
the  "Reconstruction  Committee,"  authorized  to  inquire  into 
the  condition  of  the  states  lately  in  rebellion,  and  whether 
any  of  such  were  entitled  to  representation  in  Congress,  the 
president  openly  expressed  his  opposition.  He  believed  that 
T  37  433 


434  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1868 

the  representatives  should  be  admitted  without  question. 
Later  in  the  year  1866,  when  the  president  made  a  journey  to 
Chicago  to  be  present  at  some  public  ceremonies,  he  lost  no 
opportunity  for  declaring  his  opinions  upon  the  subject  of 
reconstruction,  and  arraigned  members  of  Congress  by  name 
for  the  part  they  had  taken  in  the  measures  which  had  been 
adopted.  All  the  members  of  his  cabinet,  except  Stanton, 
the  secretary  of  war,  resigned. 

In  the  2d  month  (February),  1868,  the  president  ordered 
Secretary  Stanton  also  to  surrender  his  office,  and  directed  Ad 
jutant-General  Lorenzo  Thomas  to  take  his  place.  Stanton 
refused  to  comply.  On  the  following  day,  the  House  of 
Representatives,  believing  the  action  of  the  president  to  be  in 
violation  of  the  law,  resolved,  by  a  large  majority,  "that 
Andrew  Johnson,  president  of  the  United  States,  be  impeached 
of  high  crimes  and  misdemeanors."  Accordingly,  articles  of 
impeachment  were  presented  to  the  House.  They  charged 
the  president  with  making  inflammatory  and  odious  speeches 
during  his  journey  from  Washington  to  Chicago;  with  de 
claring  that  Congress  was  not  a  constitutional  body;  and  with 
endeavoring  to  prevent  the  execution  of  laws  which  it  had 
passed. 

The  Senate,  according  to  the  provisions  of  the  constitution, 
was  organized  as  a  jury  for  the  trial  of  the  president,  and 
Chief-Justice  CHASE  presided.  The  president's  counsel  asked 
for  delay,  and  ten  days  were  granted.  The  examination  of 
witnesses  was  then  proceeded  with,  and  the  arguments  of 
counsel  followed.  The  trial  lasted  more  than  two  months, 
closing  with  a  vote  of  35  in  favor  of  impeachment,  and  19  for 
acquittal.  As  the  vote  lacked  i  of  the  requisite  majority  of 
two-thirds,  the  president  was  acquitted. 

Soon  after  the  close  of  the  impeachment  trial,  a  i4th  amend 
ment  to  the  constitution  having  passed  Congress,  was  ratified 
by  a  sufficient  number  of  the  states,  and  became  a  law.  Seven 


1867]  RECONSTRUCTION.  435 

of  the  recently  re-organized  states  also  ratified  it,  and,  Con 
gress  having  approved  of  their  respective  state  constitutions, 
their  senators  and  representatives  were  admitted  into  the  Na 
tional  Legislature.  The  Fourteenth  Amendment  provides 
that  "  No  state  shall  make  or  enforce  any  law  which  shall 
abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities  of  citizens  of  the  United 
States ;  nor  shall  any  state  deprive  any  person  of  life,  liberty 
or  property,  without  due  process  of  law ;  nor  deny  to  any 
person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection  of  the  laws." 
This  measure  was  especially  intended  to  secure  the  freedmen 
in  their  rights  as  citizens.  It  declares  "  that  representation 
shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several  states  according  to 
their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole  number  of  persons 
in  each  state."  It  gave  to  Congress  the  power  to  remove  the 
political  disabilities  of  any  who  were  lately  in  rebellion,  and 
also  affirmed  the  validity  of  the  National  Debt,  while  it  de 
clared  the  debt  incurred  by  the  South  to  be  void  and  illegal. 
The  territory  of  ALASKA,  formerly  known  as  Russian 
America,  containing  an  area  of  about  400,000  square  miles, 
was  purchased  from  the  Russian  government  in  1867,  for  the 
sum  of  $7,200,000.  The  climate  of  the  country,  except  in  the 
southern  part,  is  too  rigorous  to  admit  of  very  successful  agri 
culture,  but  the  rock  formations  are  believed  to  be  rich  in 
mineral  wealth,  while  the  seal  fisheries  are  of  considerable 
value.  It  cannot  be  said,  however,  that  our  acquisition  of  the 
territory  of  Alaska  has  proved  a  beneficial  change  to  the  few 
thousand  Indians  who  comprise  the  population  of  that  country. 

In  a  report  submitted  to  Congress  (1872)  upon  "  Fatal  obstacles  to 
the  Christian  civilization  of  the  Indians,"  the  Medical  Director  of 
Alaska,  at  Sitka,  testifies  that  "  a  greater  mistake  could  not  have 
been  made  than  stationing  troops  in  their  midst.  *  *  Whiskey 
has  been  sold  in  the  streets  by  government  officials  at  public  auc 
tions,  and  examples  of  drunkenness  are  set  before  them  almost 
daily,  so  that  in  fact  the  principal  teaching  they  at  present  are  re 
ceiving  is  that  drunkenness  and  debauchery  are  held  by  us,  not  as 


4^6  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1871 

criminal  and  unbecoming  a  Christian  people,  but  as  indications  of 
our  advanced  and  superior  civilization.  These  Indians  are  a  civil 
and  well-behaved  people  ;  they  do  not  want  bayonets  to  keep  them 
in  subjection,  but  they  do  want  honest,  faithful,  and  Christian 
workers  among  them  ;  those  that  will  care  for  them,  teach  and  in 
struct  them  in  useful  arts,  and  that  they  are  responsible  beings." 

Another  one  witnesses  as  follows:  "The  accounts  I  have  re 
ceived  from  time  to  time,  of  the  conduct  of  the  soldiers  in  the 
Indian  camps  of  the  coast  of  Alaska,  are  truly  shocking.  If  the 
United  States  government  did  but  know  half,  I  am  sure  they  would 
shrink  from  being  identified  with  such  abominations,  and  the  cause 
of  so  much  misery." 

Nebraska  was  admitted  into  the  Union,  the  37th  state,  in 
1867.  In  the  same  year  there  was  passed  a  general  Bankrupt 
Law,  which  was  amended  in  1874,  and  is  still  in  force. 

GRANT'S  ADMINISTRATION.     THE  FREEDMEN.     EDUCATION. 

The  election  of  1868  resulted  in  the  choice  of  General 
Ulysses  S.  Grant,  of  Illinois,  for  president,  and  SCHUYLER 
COLFAX,  of  Indiana,  for  vice-president.  In  1872,  Grant  was 
re-elected  president,  while  HENRY  WILSON,  of  Massachusetts, 
was  chosen  to  the  second  office.  During  the  first  years  of 
Grant's  administration,  political  affairs  in  the  South  did  not 
exhibit  the  improvement  which,  by  many,  had  been  antici 
pated.  Unfortunately,  many  of  those  from  the  North,  who, 
immediately  after  the  war,  were  placed  in  office  at  the  South, 
were  men  quite  unfit  for  those  responsible  positions,  where 
integrity  and  impartiality  were  especially  required.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  were  numerous  cases  of  harsh  treatment 
both  to  persons  from  the  North  and  to  the  recently  enfran 
chised  bondsmen.  Murders  by  masked  men  of  a  secret  order, 
called  Ku-Klux,  were  of  frequent  occurrence  in  some  quarters. 

In  1871  there  occurred  a  great  fire  at  Chicago.  The  loss 
of  property  was  estimated  at  200  million  dollars;  18,000 
houses  were  burned ;  200  persons  perished,  and  many  fhou- 


1870]  CHICAGO  FIRE.  437 

sands  were  left  homeless.  Much  sympathy  for  the  sufferers 
by  the  dreadful  calamity,  was  manifested  throughout  this 
country  and  in  Great  Britain.  About  the  same  time,  fires 
were  prevalent  in  the  forest  regions  of  Minnesota,  Michigan, 
Wisconsin  and  other  states.  A  number  of  villages  were 
burnt  to  the  ground,  numerous  lives  were  lost,  and  the  suf 
fering  and  pecuniary  distress  were  great.  Contributions  for 
their  relief  also,  were  forwarded  from  all  parts  of  the  land. 

The  terrible  distress  caused  by  the  failure  of  the  potato  crop  in 
Ireland,  in  1848,  moved  the  American  people,  the  very  slaves 
even,  to  deep  sympathy.  Substantial  assurances  of  the  reality  of 
this  feeling  were  sent  over  in  the  shape  of  shiploads  of  food.  Upon 
the  occasion  of  the  devastating  inundations  in  France,  in  1856,  the 
English  people  were  deeply  stirred  by  the  harrowing  recitals  of 
suffering  and  loss,  and  sent  generous  offerings  to  the  afflicted 
people. 

Says  Burritt,  in  commenting  upon  the  moral  influence  of  national 
calamities:  "The  earthquake  that  engulphed  Lisbon  thrilled  the 
civilized  world  with  a  fellow-feeling  in  the  great  catastrophe,  and, 
like  Moses'  rod  at  Horeb,  smote  the  rock-ribbed  boundaries  of 
jealous  nations  and  set  them  running  with  rivulets  of  benevolence 
toward  the  suffering  city." 

A  general  Amnesty  Bill,  in  favor  of  those  who  had  borne 
an  active  part  in  the  rebellion,  was  passed  by  Congress,  in 
1872.  COLORADO  was  admitted  into  the  Union  in  1875.  ID 
the  latter  part  of  the  same  year  Vice-President  Wilson  died. 


In  the  year  1870,  Congress  passed  the  i5th  Amendment  to 
the  constitution.  It  enacts  that  (Section  i)  "The  right  of 
citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be  denied  or 
abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  state,  on  account  of 
race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude."  (Section  2) 
"The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate 
legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article."  All  citizens  of 

37* 


438  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1871 

the  United  States,  except  untaxed  Indians,  were  thence  ad 
mitted  to  the  franchise.  To  resume:  By  the  i3th  Amend 
ment,  slavery  had  been  constitutionally  abolished  ;  by  the 
I4th  Amendment,  the  freedmen  were  declared  to  be  citizens; 
by  the  i5th,  they  were  invested  with  the  right  of  suffrage.  To 
carry  out  the  second  section  of  the  i5th  Amendment,  Con 
gress  passed  the  so-called  ''Enforcement  Act."  In  several 
of  the  reconstructed  states,  and  especially  in  South  Carolina 
and  Louisiana,  grave  disturbances  arose,  which  the  president 
believed  himself  called  upon  to  quell  by  applying  the  power 
provided  for  in  said  act.* 

With  the  object  of  relieving  the  immediate  necessities  of 
those  who  -were  either  escaping  or  had  escaped  from  slavery, 
and  for  the  help  of  needy  white  refugees  from  the  South, 
the  Bureau  of  Refugees,  Freedmen  and  Abandoned  Lands — 
usually  styled  the  "  Freedmen's  Bureau" — had  been  estab 
lished  by  act  of  Congress  a  few  months  prior  to  the  close 
of  the  war.  It  continued  in  operation  until  1871.  General 
HOWARD  was  appointed  commissioner.  An  organized  system 
of  relief  went  into  operation,  which  administered  not  only 
the  aid  afforded  by  government,  but  also  the  large  contri 
butions  forwarded  by  societies  and  individuals.  Transporta 
tion  was  afforded  to  many  thousand  freedmen  and  refugees, 
hospitals  and  dispensaries  were  established  and  provisions  sup 
plied.  Over  2000  freedmen's  schools  were  also  opened.  The 
most  prominent  of  these  was  the  Howard  University,  near 
Washington. 

But  the  aid  afforded  to  the  freedmen,  and  especially  the 
opening  of  schools,  was  not  left  entirely  to  the  Freedmen's 
Bureau.  Ignorant  slaves  had  suddenly  been  made  citizens, 
invested  with  the  right  to  vote,  and,  obviously,  there  was  a 
responsibility  which  must  be  at  once  met  in  making  provi 
sion  for  their  intellectual  and  moral  advancement.  By  most 
of  the  religious  denominations  at  the  North,  aid  was  extended 


1 87 1]  PEA  BODY  FUND.  439 

to  begin  the  work.  The  gift  of  two  million  dollars  bestowed 
by  GEORGE  PEABODY  for  the  specific  purpose  of  promoting 
education  in  the  Southern  states,  proved  a  very  efficient 
help. 

Only  the  income  of  the  Peabody  fund — amounting  to 
$120,000  per  annum — is  annually  expended.  Not  a  single 
state  of  the  South  possessed  a  modern  system  of  public  schools 
at  the  time  this  trust  was  created  ;  but  now,  no  state  is  with 
out  such  a  system.  This  favorable  result  has  been  owing  in  a 
considerable  measure  to  the  timely  aid  extended  by  the 
trustees  of  the  fund.  In  order  to  receive  such  aid,  it  is  a  re 
quirement  that  the  school  assisted  shall  have  at  least  100 
pupils,  with  one  teacher  for  every  50  scholars ;  that  it  shall  be 
properly  graded  ;  and  that  it  shall  be  continued  during  ten 
months  of  the  year,  with  an  average  attendance  of  85  in  the 
hundred.  These  provisions  have  operated  to  keep  the  schools 
well  attended.  The  district  in  which  any  aided  school  is 
situated,  is  expected  to  contribute  at  least  twice  the  amount 
received  from  the  Peabody  fund,  and  usually  much  more  than 
twice.  The  money  is  available  for  the  schools  of  either  white 
or  colored  pupils  who  shall  have  fulfilled  the  conditions. 

Government  land  grants  in  behalf  of  public  education  were 
made  as  far  back  as  1785.  From  that  time  to  the  present, 
the  extent  of  grants  for  such  purpose  has  amounted  to  140 
million  acres.  Since  1862,  when  Congress  passed  a  law  dis 
tributing  the  proceeds  of  the  sale  of  five  million  acres  among 
the  different  states,  more  attention  has  been  paid  to  the  estab 
lishment  of  normal  institutes,  agricultural  colleges,  and  schools 
for  instruction  in  the  useful  arts.  The  money  thus  received 
by  the  states  from  the  general  government,  has  been  largely 
increased  by  grants  from  the  states  themselves,  from  towns, 
and  from  private  individuals. 

Prior  to  the  Revolution  there  had  been  ten  colleges  or  col 
legiate  institutions  chartered  in  the  colonies,  the  first  of  which, 


440  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1875 

already  referred  to,  were  Harvard  College,  at  Cambridge 
(1638),  and  William  and  Mary  College,  at  Williamsburg 
(1693).  Next  were  founded  Yale  College,  at  New  Haven 
(1701),  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  at  Princeton  (1746), 
and  Washington  and  Lee  University,  at  Lexington,  Virginia 
(1749).  Columbia  College,  New  York  City,  was  founded  in 
*754;  the  University  of  Pennsylvania,  at  Philadelphia,  the 
following  year ;  Brown  University,  Providence,  Rhode  Island, 
in  1764;  Dartmouth  College,  at  Hanover,  New  Hampshire,  in 
1769;  and  Rutgers  College,  at  New  Brunswick,  in  1770. 
Classics  and  theology  were  specially  taught  in  most  of  these 
institutions.  At  the  University  of  Pennsylvania  particular 
attention  was  early  given  to  medical  science.  Dartmouth 
was  founded  for  the  especial  benefit  of  Indian  youth,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  that  course.  At  the  beginning  of  the  Revo 
lution  the  number  of  students  in  all  the  colleges  probably  did 
not  number  more  than  300.  In  the  century  following  1770 
the  colleges  and  universities  established  numbered  290,  with 
a  total  enrollment  in  1870  (including  those  in  the  ten  institu 
tions  named)  of  54,000  pupils. 

The  necessity  for  providing  free  public  schools  was  early 
recognized  in  the  New  England  colonies.  In  Massachusetts 
it  was  ordered,  as  early  as  1647,  that  every  township  of  50 
householders  should  maintain  such  a  school  at  the  public 
expense;  and  that  every  township  of  100  householders  should 
maintain  a  grammar-school.  The  system  of  free  education, 
however,  continued  defective  in  its  operation  until  the  year 
1834,  when  the  sum  of  one  million  dollars  was  raised  to  aid 
the  towns  in  providing  the  requisite  accommodations.  Five 
years  later  the  first  normal  school  was  established  at  Lexing 
ton.  Of  the  other  New  England  states,  Connecticut  and 
Rhode  Island  have  made  corresponding  progress.  HORACE 
MANN,  of  Massachusetts,  and  HENRY  BARNARD,  of  Connec 
ticut,  were  diligent  laborers  in  behalf  of  common  school 


1876]  PUBLIC  SCHOOL   SYSTEM.  441 

education.  In  Pennsylvania  a  public  school  was  organized 
at  Philadelphia  by  the  Friends,  eight  years  after  the  city  was 
laid  out ;  and  now  free  education,  in  its  widest  extent,  has 
been  adopted  throughout  that  commonwealth. 

In  the  state  of  New  York,  Governor  GEORGE  CLINTON  hav 
ing  recommended  (1795)  the  general  adoption  of  the  system 
of  common  schools,  the  proposition  found  favor  and  was 
adopted.  In  1812,  renewed  efforts  were  put  forth  by  earnest 
friends  of  the  measure,  most  prominent  of  whom  was  DE  WITT 
CLINTON,  who  advocated  the  founding  of  normal  schools, 
the  higher  education  of  women,  increased  salaries  for  the 
teachers,  and  absolute  freedom  of  instruction  by  the  aboli 
tion  of  the  payment  of  rates.  The  latter  provision,  however, 
was  not  adopted  until  1862.  In  1840  a  notable  struggle  be 
gan  with  the  Romanists,  who  insisted  that  part  of  the  state 
funds  should  be  diverted  to  the  support  of  their  own  denomi 
national  schools.  But  the  American  system,  it  was  finally  au 
thoritatively  decided,  was  unsectarian  in  its  provisions, — in 
this  important  respect  differing  from  European  usage,  where 
aid  is  principally  extended  in  the  interest  of  the  established 
religion.  In  the  West,  free,  unsectarian  schools  prevail. 

The  total  number  of  public  schools  throughout  the  Union 
in  1870  was  125,000,  with  nearly  200,000  teachers  (somewhat 
more  than  half  of  whom  were  females),  and  about  6,000,000 
pupils  enrolled.  Unlike  the  state  instruction  provided  in 
Germany,  government  aid  ceases  with  the  liberal  land- 
grants  in  aid  of  the  state  institutions,  except  with  respect 
to  the  collecting  and  distribution  of  information  through  the 
Department  of  Education  at  Washington.  Beyond  this,  the 
states  themselves,  through  properly-elected  school-boards, 
control  entirely  the  raising  and  application  of  school-funds 
and  the  courses  of  studies  to  be  followed. 

But  there  still  remains  a  vast  amount  of  illiteracy  unpro 
vided  for,  especially  at  the  South.  Upon  the  abolishment  of 
T* 


442  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1868 

the  Freedmen's  Bureau  in  1871,  it  was  estimated  that  not  more 
than  one  freedman's  child  in  six  was  being  provided  with 
school  education.  This  is  a  sad  as  well  as  an  alarming  state 
ment  :  that  five-sixths  of  the  colored  race  on  our  soil  should  be 
allowed  to  grow  up  without  the  knowledge  of  how  to  read  and 
write  !  To  provide  against  so  undesirable  a  contingency,  there 
is  now  pending  in  Congress  an  "  Educational  Fund  Bill."  It 
proposes  to  set  apart  for  a  perpetual  Education  Fund,  the  net 
proceeds  of  so  much  of  the  public  lands  as  are  not  taken  up 
under  the  homestead  or  soldiers'  bounty  acts.  The  money, 
it  is  proposed,  shall  be  distributed  among  all  the  states  and 
territories,  for  the  purposes  of  free  education,  irrespective  of 
race  or  color  ;  but  for  the  first  ten  years  after  the  passage  of 
the  act,  the  money  to  be  distributed  according  to  the  propor 
tion  of  illiteracy.  That  is  to  say,  the  most  money  to  be  ap 
plied  for  the  present  where  the  need  is  most  urgent,  namely, 
in  the  Southern  states. 


THE   NEW   INDIAN    POLICY. 

The  consideration  of  a  better  method  of  dealing  with  the 
Indians  than  that  which  had  hitherto  prevailed,  was  early 
brought  to  the  attention  of  President  Grant.  In  an  official 
report  at  that  time,  it  was  stated,  that  "while  it  cannot  be 
denied  that  the  United  States  government,  in  the  general 
terms  and  temper  of  its  legislation,  has  evinced  a  desire  to 
deal  justly  with  the  Indians,  it  must  be  admitted  that  the 
actual  treatment  they  have  received  has  been  unjust  and 
iniquitous  beyond  the  power  of  words  to  express." 

BISHOP  WIIIPPLE,  of  Minnesota,  an  earnest  and  tried  friend  of  the 
red  men,  remarks  :  "  I  have  travelled  on  foot  and  in  the  saddle,  over 
every  square  mile  of  my  diocese.  I  know  every  Indian  settlement 
in  it.  Some  of  the  Indians  will  drink  and  some  of  them  will  steal, 
and  they  are  of  our  race,  for  they  have  the  same  vices  ;  but  in  every 


1869]  THE   AEIV  INDIAN  POLICY.  443 

•• 

difficulty  that  has  occurred  in  these  twelve  years  of  my  residence, 
between  the  Indians  and  the  government,  the  government  has  always 
been  wrong  and  the  Indians  have  always  been  right." 

A  prominent  military  officer,  General  HARNEY,  stated  that  "  he 
never  knew  an  Indian  chief  to  break  his  word,  and  in  no  instance 
in  which  a  war  broke  out  with  the  tribes,  that  the  tribes  were  not  in 
the  right." 

Furthermore,  as  regards  the  matter  of  expense,  it  appears  by 
governmental  statistics,  that  since  the  year  1820  the  policy  of  extin 
guishment  had  cost  the  government  for  each  Indian  killed,  the  lives 
of  twenty  white  men  and  one  million  dollars  ! 

In  the  first  annual  message  of  President  Grant  to  Congress 
(1869),  he  announced  the  inauguration  of  what  is  now  gener 
ally  known  as  the  ''Quaker  Policy"  of  Indian  treatment,  in 
these  words : 

"I  have  attempted  a  new  policy  toward  these  wards  of  the 
nation  (they  cannot  be  regarded  in  any  other  light  than  as 
wards),  with  fair  results  so  far  as  tried,  and  which  I  hope  will 
be  attended  ultimately  with  great  success.  '  The  Society  of 
Friends  is  well  known  as  having  succeeded  in  living  in  peace 
with  the  Indians  in  the  early  settlement  of  Pennsylvania, 
while  their  white  neighbors  of  other  sects,  in  other  sections, 
were  constantly  embroiled.  They  were  also  known  for  their 
opposition  to  all  strife,  violence  and  war.  *  *  These  con 
siderations  induced  me  to  give  the  management  of  a  few  reser 
vations  of  the  Indians  to  them,  and  to  throw  the  burden  of 
the  selection  of  agents  upon  the  society  itself."  But  other 
religious  societies,  beside  the  Friends,  were  properly  included 
in  this  arrangement. 

The  president's  reasons  for  favoring  this  important  change 
were,  in  the  first  place,  to  avoid  the  horrors  as  well  as  the  ex 
pense  of  a  border  warfare.  The  government  being  already 
deeply  in  debt,  the  president  perceived  the  absolute  necessity 
of  inaugurating  measures  of  retrenchment.  Likewise,  the 
great  Pacific  railroad,  the  construction  of  which  had  just  been 


444  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1869 

completed,  would  be  seriously  jeopardized  by  a  general  Indian 
outbreak ;  while  the  protection  of  so  long  a  line  of  railway 
from  the  onsets  of  hostile  Indians,  would  be  only  possible  at 
great  expense,  and  would  also  necessitate  a  large  increase  of 
the  army.  "  Finally,  it  was  doubtless  hoped  that  a  just  and 
humane  treatment  of  the  Indians  in  the  future,  would  tend  in 
some  degree  to  obliterate  the  odium  which,  in  the  eyes  of  the 
Christian  world,  justly  attaches  to  our  government,  because 
of  the  violence  and  heartlessness  and  bloodshed  which  have 
too  often  characterized  its  administration  of  Indian  affairs." 

The  disgraceful  circumstances  connected  with  the  Sioux  war  of 
1862,  and  the  Cheyenne  war  of  1865,  most  likely  exercised  an  influ 
ence  in  bringing  about  the  new  policy.  The  origin  of  the  CHEY 
ENNE  war  was  as  follows  :  About  five  hundred  Indians  of  that  body, 
who,  though  charged  with  being  offenders,  protested  that  they  did 
not  wish  to  fight,  were  gathered  under  the  protection  of  their  agent, 
near  Fort  Larned.  In  the  gray  of  the  morning  they  were  attacked 
by  a  body  of  Colorado  volunteers,  and  the  awful  "  Chivington  mas 
sacre"  resulted.  An  official  report  says  :  "  It  was  a  massacre  that 
scarcely  has  its  parallel  in  the  records  of  Indian  barbarity.  Fleeing 
women,  holding  up  their  hands  and  praying  for  mercy,  were  brutally 
shot  down  ;  infants  were  killed  and  scalped  in  derision  ;  men  were 
tortured  and  mutilated  in  a  manner  that  would  put  to  shame  the 
savage  ingenuity  of  Africa.  No  one  will  be  astonished  that  a  war 
ensued  which  cost  the  government  30  million  dollars,  and  carried 
conflagration  and  death  to  the  border  settlements." 

In  organizing  the  new  policy,  the  management  of  the  In 
dians  (who  had  been  placed  under  the  control  of  the  Depart 
ment  of  the  Interior  as  early  as  1849),  was  m  Part  intrusted 
to  a  Board  of  Indian  Commissioners  composed  of  men  of 
recognized  integrity  and  ability,  selected  by  the  president. 
For  the  trial  of  the  experiment,  the  entire  territory  from  the 
state  of  Missouri  to  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  from  the  Red 
river  of  Texas  to  the  line  of  the  British  provinces,  was  set 
apart,  and  divided  into  six  districts  or  superintendencies. 


1874]  THE   NEW  INDIAN  POLICY.  445 

Subsequently,  agencies  were  also  established  for  the  Indians 
west  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 

The  following  are  the  names  and  locations  of  the  principal 
tribes  which  were  intrusted  to  the  care  of  thirteen  of  the 
religious  denominations : 

Congregational. — Arickarees,  Mandans,  and  Gros  Ventres, 
of  Dacotah ;  Chippewas,  of  Minnesota ;  Menomonees  and 
Oneidas,  of  Wisconsin. 

Methodist. — Blackfeet  and  Crows,  of  Montana;  western 
Shoshones,  of  Idaho  ;  also,  in  part,  the  Pacific  coast  Indians. 

Episcopalian. — Sioux  or  Dacotahs,  and  the  northern  Chey- 
ennes  and  Arapahoes,  of  Dacotah ;  and  the  eastern  Shoshones, 
of  Wyoming  Territory. 

Roman  Catholic. — Flatheads  of  Montana,  and  a  number  of 
small  tribes  in  Oregon,  Washington  Territory,  and  Dacotah. 

Presbyterian. — Apaches  and  Navajoes,  of  New  Mexico ;  the 
Uintahs,  of  Utah  ;  Nez  Perces,  of  Idaho. 

Dutch  Reformed. — Papagos,  Pimas  and  Apaches,  of  the  Gila 
and  Colorado  rivers,  of  Arizona. 

Hicksite  Friends. — Pawnees  and  Winnebagoes,  lowas,  Otoes 
and  Omahas,  of  Nebraska. 

Orthodox  Friends. — Pottawatomies,  of  Kansas ;  southern 
Cheyennes  and  Arapahoes,  Kiowas  and  Comanches,  Osages 
and  Delawares,  of  the  Indian  Territory.  There  are  about  25 
tribes  under  the  care  of  Friends,  in  the  "  Central  Superinten- 
dency." 

Baptist. — The  Utes  of  Nevada  and  northern  Arizona. 

The  Mobilian  tribes  in  the  Indian  Territory,  to  wit,  the 
Cherokees,  Creeks,  Choctaws,  Chickasaws  and  Seminoles,  were 
considered  sufficiently  civilized  to  have  agents  of  their  own ;  but 
in  1874  these  agencies  were  consolidated  into  one,  the  Union, 
and  placed  under  care  of  the  Baptists. 

The  Free-  Will  Baptists,  United  Presbyterians,  Christian 
Union  and  Unitarians,  also  have  agencies,  but  smaller  than- 

33 


446  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1876 

the  above.     The  Moravians  have  missions  in  Kansas  and  the 
Indian  Territory,  but,  as  yet,  no  agency. 

The  method  of  organization  adopted  by  the  Friends  was  as 
follows.  Two  members  from  each  of  their  several  Yearly 
Meeting  districts  were  appointed,  to  constitute  an  "Associated 
Executive  Committee  on  Indian  Affairs."  This  committee 
nominated  one  superintendent,  and  also  agents  for  the  different 
tribes  under  their  charge;  all  of  whom  were  accepted  by  the 
president  and  confirmed  by  the  senate.  The  committee  was 
divided  into  four  standing  sub-committees,  namely,  on  Instruc 
tion  ;  the  Religious  Interests  of  the  Indians  ;  Industrial  Pur 
suits;  and  the  Washington  committee, — the  duty  of  conferring 
directly  w"ith  the  United  States  authorities  devolving  on  the 
latter.  Each  agent  was  (and  is)  required  to  make  a  quarterly 
financial  report  to  transmit  to  Washington,  as  well  as  an  an 
nual  report  to  the  superintendent,  of  the  condition  of  the 
Indians  in  his  charge. 

The  agents  of  the  various  religious  societies  who  entered 
upon  the  beneficent  work  of  civilizing  and  christianizing  the 
Indians,  found  themselves  speedily  confronted  by  many  dis 
heartening  influences.  They  found  there  was  not  so  much 
difficulty  experienced  in  restraining  turbulent  Indians,  as  there 
was  in  keeping  white  outlaws  away  from  the  reservations, — 
the  greedy  speculators,  horse  thieves  and  whiskey-dealers.  But, 
notwithstanding  the  continuous  opposition  of  those  whose 
business  it  had  been  to  thrive  off  the  Indians,  and  in  spite 
of  the  predictions  of  failure  in  attempting  a  policy  of  peace 
with  "savages,"  the  religious  bodies  have  pressed  forward  in 
the  work  which  was  given  into  their  hands,  and  now  (1876), 
after  a  seven  years'  trial,  have  proved  it  to  be  as  much  of  a  suc 
cess  as  could  have  been  reasonably  looked  for.  The  Indians, 
for  the  most  part,  have  been  kept  on  the  reservations  allotted 
them ;  many  of  them  have  tilled  the  soil  and  followed  the 
employments  of  the  white  man  ;  they  have  been  brought  in  a 


1876]  THE  NEW  INDIAN  POLICY.  447 

degree  under  the  benign  influences  of  the  Christian  religion, 
while  many  schools  have  been  organized  where  instruction 
has  been  imparted  to  the  children. 

Under  the  previous  system  of  Indian  management,  the  Indians 
had  been  systematically  defrauded  out  of  large  quantities  of  the 
flour,  beef,  etc.,  due  to  them  under  government  treaties.  A  notable 
illustration  of  the  way  in  which  the  red  men  were  thus  robbed  by 
the  whites,  is  that  afforded  in  the  case  of  the  Sioux.  For  the  five 
months  previous  to  the  establishment  of  the  reformed  agency 
(Episcopalian),  the  average  weight  of  the  cattle  furnished  to  the  In 
dians  was  certified  to  be  over  1500  pounds:  the  method  being  to 
weigh  a  few  of  the  heaviest  cattle  and  to  assume  that  the  remainder 
of  the  herd  were  of  the  same  weight.  But  under  honest  agents  who 
succeeded,  the  average  weight  for  the  next  three  months  was  found 
to  be  but  a  little  over  1000  pounds  ;  thus  showing  that  formerly 
the  government  had  paid  for  one-third  more  pounds  than  the  Sioux 
had  really  received. 

In  restraining  refractory  Indians  as  well  as  unprincipled 
white  men,  the  peace  principles  advocated  by  the  Friends  have 
been  put  to  a  severe  test.  They  cannot  make,  use  of  deadly 
weapons  themselves,  and  they  feel  a  hesitancy  in  calling  upon 
the  military  in  cases  which  may  issue  in  bloodshed  ;  while 
they  as  firmly  believe  that  if  the  government  was  strictly  just 
toward  the  Indians  as  well  as  prompt  in  its  manifestation,  there 
would  be  no  excuse  whatever  for  the  use  of  such  weapons. 
As  a  practical  measure  which  may  overcome  the  difficulty, 
they  favor  the  establishment  of  a  United  States  court  in  the 
Indian  Territory,  so  that  the  civil  force,  namely,  the  United 
States  marshal  and  his  assistants,  may  be  made  use  of,  in 
stead  of  recourse  being  had  to  the  military.  The  president, 
secretary  of  the  Interior  and  many  members  of  Congress, 
warmly  approve  of  this  plan,  and  it  is  to  be  hoped  that,  the 
Indians  consenting,  it  may  be  carried  into  effect. 

Recently,  a  small  band  of  MODOCS,  from  south-western 
Oregon,  was  placed  upon  the  Quapaw  reservation  in  the  In- 


448  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1876 

dian  Territory.  In  1852,  eighteen  men  of  this  tribe,  while 
under  a  flag  of  truce,  had  been  murdered  by  a  Captain  Wright 
and  his  company  of  soldiers.  A  difficulty  again  arose  with 
the  tribe  in  1873,  and  troops  were  sent  against  them.  Under 
the  leadership  of  a  warrior  named  Captain  Jack  (whose  father 
was  one  of  those  murdered  by  Wright's  company),  they 
strongly  entrenched  themselves  among  what  are  known  as  the 
"lava  beds."  A  truce  was  agreed  upon,  and  General  Can  by 
and  three  other  commissioners  visited  them,  hoping  to  arrange 
a  settlement.  Captain  Jack  first  demanded  the  return  of  some 
mules  which  had  been  stolen,  and  also  that  the  soldiers  them- 
selve  should  be  removed  back  to  where  they  were  when  the 
truce  was  agreed  upon.  The  Modocs  were  strenuous  on 
these  points,  which  being  refused,  a  signal  was  given,  and 
General  Canby  and  one  of  the  other  commissioners  were 
killed.  Captain  Jack  was  captured,  and  executed  without  a 
trial,  and  his  band,  as  stated  above,  were  removed  to  the  In 
dian  Territory.  The  report  of  the  Friends  for  1875  savs  °f 
them  :  "  The  jVEodocs  have  been  total  abstainers  from  alco 
holic  drinks  since  they  have  been  on  this  reservation ;  their 
children  are  in  school,  making  good  progress;  they  have  land 
assigned  to  them  by  government,  and  are  already  fencing  and 
cultivating  it." 

Upon  several  occasions,  strenuous  efforts  have  been  made 
to  transfer  the  control  of  the  Indians  from  the  Department  of 
the  Interior  to  the  War  Department.  Especially  was  this  the 
case,  during  the  congressional  session  of  1869-70.  Very  early 
in  the  latter  year,  however,  it  happened  that  an  attack  was 
made  by  United  States  troops  upon  the  camp  of  the  PIEGAN 
tribe  of  the  Blackfeet  Indians.  There  were  nearly  250  natives 
in  the  camp,  many  of  them  suffering  severely  from  the  ravages 
of  the  smallpox.  Nevertheless,  four-fifths  of  them  were  killed ; 
ninety  of  whom  were  women,  and  about  fifty,  children,  under 
twelve  years  of  age.  The  news  of  this  massacre  effectually 


1 845]  THE    TEMPERANCE    QUESTION. 


449 


defeated  the  proposition  to  transfer  these  wards  of  the  nation 
to  the  tender  mercies  of  the  military. 

The  whole  number  of  Indians  in  the  United  States  is  esti 
mated  to  be  300,000;  of  whom  100,000  are  classed  as  civil 
ized;  125,000  partially  civilized ;  and  75,000  uncivilized  or 
barbarous. 

THE   TEMPERANCE   QUESTION. 

Probably  the  greatest  drawback  to  the  happiness  of  our 
people,  is  to  be  found  in  the  general  use  of  intoxicating 
liquors.  Half-a-century  ago  the  public  first  became  thoroughly 
aroused  to  the  enormity  of  the  evil,  and  a  great  effort  was 
made  to  bring  it  under  control. 

It  was  in  1826,  at  a  time  of  much  popular  enthusiasm  upon 
the  subject,  that  the  American  Temperance  Society  was  formed 
at  Boston.  In  the  course  of  five  years,  as  many  as  7000  tem 
perance  associations  were  in  operation,  comprising  a  million 
and  a  quarter  of  members.  But  in  the  meantime,  beer  and 
cider,  in  place  of  rum,  became  popular  drinks,  and  very  many 
of  those  who  had  apparently  reformed,  gave  way.  In  1840, 
the  "  Washingtonian"  temperance  movement  was  started  at 
Baltimore,  and  enthusiasm  again  ran  high ;  the  excitement 
upon  the  subject  being  increased  by  the  visit  of  Father  Mat 
thew,  a  Romanist  priest,  who  was  an  earnest  advocate  of  total 
abstinence.  The  failure  of  the  Washingtonian  plan  appears  to 
have  been  owing  to  a  too-exclusive  reliance  on  man's  strength, 
and  a  consequent  ignoring  of  the  aid  of  the  Almighty  Arm. 

Meanwhile,  the  subject  of  the  liquor  traffic  was  made  a 
political  question  in  several  of  the  states.  Licenses  to  sell 
were  refused  in  many  of  the  counties  and  towns  of  Massa 
chusetts,  New  York  and  Connecticut.  The  effects  of  the 
partial  prohibition  in  Massachusetts,  were  thus  stated  in 
1845  :  "  From  more  than  100  towns  the  traffic  is  entirely  re 
moved,  and  a  reduction  is  already  visible  in  the  public  taxa- 

38* 


450  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1851 

tion.  In  one  town,  with  a  population  of  7000,  there  were, 
four  years  since,  469  paupers ;  '  no  license'  has  reduced  them 
to  ii."  In  Potter  county,  Pennsylvania,  where  the  judge  re 
fused  to  grant  any  license,  the  report  stated  that,  "  The 
prison  has  become  tenantless ;  there  is  not  a  solitary  pauper 
in  the  county  ;  the  business  in  the  criminal  court  has  ceased, 
and  taxes  have  been  reduced  one-half." 

A  more  recent  instance  of  the  excellent  effect  of  a  thorough  pro 
hibitory  law,  is  that  afforded  in  the  case  of  VINELAND,  New  Jersey. 
Out  of  a  population  of  10,000,  the  overseer  of  the  poor  reported 
that;  for  the  space  of  six  months,  no  settler  or  citizen  had  received 
relief.  During  an  entire  year  there  was  but  a  single  indictment,  and 
that  for  a  trifling  case  of  assault.  The  fires  are  so  infrequent  that 
there  appears  to  be  no  need  of  a  fire  department.  The  police  ex 
penses  amount  to  but  $75  per  year.  By  way  of  contrast  to  this  ex 
hibit,  the  constable  of  the  same  place  states,  that  in  the  town  of 
New  England  from  which  he  came,  and  which  had  scarcely  as  large 
a  population  as  Vineland,  there  were  maintained  40  liquor  shops. 
To  preserve  order  there  was  required  a  police  judge,  two  marshals 
and  ten  watchmen  and  policemen.  There  were  four  fire  companies 
of  forty  men  each,  while  the  fires,  which  were  mostly  incendiary, 
averaged  one  every  two  weeks.  Numerous  paupers  also  had  to  be 
supported. 

Owing  to  the  facility  with  which  liquors  could  usually  be 
smuggled  into  a  'no  license'  town  or  county,  the  prohibitory 
laws  in  New  England  were  but  partially  successful.  But  in 
1846,  there  was  enacted  by  the  legislature  of  Maine,  the  first 
state  prohibitory  law.  Yet  this  law  lacked  practical  force, 
because,  while  the  liquor-dealer  was  subject  to  fines  for  the 
offence  of  selling,  the  liquor  itself  remained  untouched.  The 
large  profits  from  his  business  would  enable  him  to  pay  the 
fine  and  go  on  selling  as  before.  However,  a  majority  of  tem 
perance  men  who  favored  a  more  stringent  enactment,  having 
been  elected  to  the  legislature,  that  body  in  1851,  by  a  vote 
of  two  to  one,  passed  the  act  known  as  the  '•'  Maine  Liquor 


1873]  THE    TEMPERANCE    QUESTION.  45I 

Law."  This  law  conferred  upon  the  officers  summary  power 
to  destroy  the  liquor, — the  liquor  itself  being  received  in  evi 
dence  against  the  dealer,  the  same  as  are  the  implements  of  the 
gambler  or  of  the  coiner  of  counterfeit  money.  NEAL  Dow, 
mayor  of  Portland,  was  actively  instrumental  in  procuring  the 
passage  of  this  law  and  also  in  maintaining  its  observance. 

Before  1856,  the  six  New  England  states  and  six  other  states, 
enacted  prohibitory  laws ;  but  in  none  of  them  has  the  law 
continued  in  force  except  in  the  state  of  Maine.  There,  the 
palpable  results  of  the  prohibition  law  in  lessening  pauperism 
and  crime,  have  produced  a  strong  and  settled  public  senti 
ment  in  its  favor,  which  is  not  likely  to  be  set  at  naught  unless 
it  be  through  the  subtle  machinations  of  the  liquor-dealers. 

Notwithstanding  the  ill-success  of  the  prohibitory  move 
ment  in  most  of  the  states,  the  opposition  to  the  liquor  traffic 
did  not  cease,  but  was  brought  to  operate  in  a  different  man 
ner.  Seeing  that  to  the  evil  agency  of  rum  are  directly  owing 
the  greater  part  of  the  crimes  which  are  committed  ;  the 
vagrancy  and  pauperism  which  prevail ;  the  cost  of  providing 
officers  of  the  law,  and  maintaining  penitentiaries  and  other 
institutions  made  necessary  thereby,  it  became  a  question 
whether  those  who  took  part  in  the  traffic  were  not  equally 
amenable  with  the  drunkard  for  the  wretched  consequences 
of  his  acts.  Hence  arose  the  principle  of  the  Civil  Damage 
laws,  which  of  late  years  have  been  enacted  in  several  of  the 
states. 

The  Civil  Damage  act,  of  Ohio,  gives  the  right  to  any  one  who 
shall  be  injured  in  consequence  of  the  intoxication,  habitual  or  other- 
wise,  of  any  person,  to  bring  an  action  for  all  damages  sustained,  as 
well  against  the  person  who  shall  have  sold  the  liquor  which  pro 
duced  the  intoxication,  as  against  the  owner  or  tenant  of  the  build 
ing  in  which  said  liquor  was  sold. 

The  Indiana  Temperance  law  of  1873  provides  that  a  petition  for 
a  permit  to  sell  spirituous  liquors  must  be  signed  by  a  majority  of 
legal  voters  in  the  ward  or  township  ;  that  the  applicant  must  give 


452  HISTORY   OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1874 

a  bond,  with  two  other  persons  as  sureties,  making  themselves  sev 
erally  liable  for  damages  suffered  by  reason  of  the  sale  of  liquor; 
that  it  shall  be  unlawful  for  any  one  to  get  intoxicated  (a  penalty  of 
five  dollars  being  charged  for  the  offence)  ;  that  any  one  injured  in 
person,  property,  or  means  of  support  by  any  intoxicated  person,  or 
by  reason  of  such  intoxication,  shall  have  a  right  of  action  for 
damages  against  the  person  who  sold  the  liquor,  and  against  the 
landlord  of  the  premises. 

In  the  winter  of  1873  and  '74,  a  Women's  Temperance 
movement  began  in  Ohio,  and  soon  spread  to  Indiana  and 
others  of  the  western  states,  as  well  as  the  eastern  cities. 
"Prayer,  persuasion  and  personal  influence,"  were  declared 
to  be  the  watchwords.  Whole  counties  in  Ohio  were  swept 
free  of  the  saloons.  In  the  city  of  Brooklyn,  many  of  the 
liquor-dealers  gave  up  the  demoralizing  business  and  united 
with  the  friends  of  temperance  in  endeavors  to  put  down  the 
traffic.  "  Workingmen's  Coffee-Houses"  and  "  Holly  Tree 
Inns"  have  been  started  in  many  of  the  cities,  to  serve  the 
purpose  of  substitutes  for  the  taverns  which  have  been  re 
moved.  At  those  places,  non-intoxicating  beverages,  such  as 
coffee  and  milk,  can  be  had  of  excellent  quality,  at  less  than 
the  price  of  ardent  spirits.  In  England,  as  at  Manchester  and 
Liverpool,  cocoa  has  been  largely  employed  as  a  substitute  for 
beer  and  spirituous  liquors. 

During  the  session  of  1874,  the  Senate  of  the  United  States 
passed  a  bill  providing  for  a  National  Commission  to  inquire 
into  the  results  of  the  liquor  traffic  ;  but  the  House  of  Repre 
sentatives  has  not,  as  yet,  concurred  therein.  The  general 
government,  in  permitting  the  manufacture  of  intoxicating 
liquors  simply  upon  the  payment  of  a  tax,  becomes  in  a  meas 
ure  a  party  to  the  monstrous  evil.  Again,  the  dealers  feel 
that,  having  settled  the  tax,  they  ought  not  to  be  hindered  in 
dispensing  their  vile  manufactures.  But,  compare  the  revenue 
received  by  the  government,  with  the  cost  to  the  country. 


1 874]  THE    TEMPERANCE    QUESTION,  453 

The  amount  of  receipts  of  internal  revenue  arising  from  the 
tax  on  spirituous  and  fermented  liquors,  was,  in  1874,  58 
million  dollars.  This  is  the  annual  gain. 

There  are  13,000  distilleries,  breweries  and  wholesale  stores, 
and  140,000  saloons,  employing  over  half  a  million  men  in 
this  work  so  destructive  to  body  and  soul.  Were  these  distil 
leries  and  saloons  ranged  in  a  single  line,  side  by  side,  it  would 
probably  take  a  man  the  space  of  forty  days,  walking  fifteen 
miles  per  day,  to  get  beyond  the  last  of  those  doors  of  death  ! 

About  100,000  persons,  at  an  expense  of  100  million  dol 
lars,  are  annually  imprisoned  for  crime,  a  large  part  of  which 
is  directly  due  to  the  use  of  strong  drink.  Briefly  stated  :  the 
annual  waste  in  grain,  fruit,  etc.,  which  are  turned  into  intoxi 
cating  liquors ;  in  the  cost  of  pauperism  and  crime,  produced 
by  intemperance ;  in  the  loss  of  productive  industry  ;  in  the 
loss  of  wages  or  value  of  time  of  those  employed  in  the  busi 
ness;  in  the  support  of  insane,  idiots  and  disabled,  are  to 
gether  estimated  at  1300  million  dollars.  In  other  words, 
for  every  dollar  which  the  government  receives,  the  country 
loses  over  220.  The  exhibit  on  page  431  is  instructive. 

Consider  the  loss  in  a  single  state.  In  Virginia,  where  the  yearly 
taxation  of  property  for  state  purposes  amounts  to  about  3^  mil 
lion  dollars,  it  is  estimated  that  the  value  of  intoxicating  liquors 
consumed  amounts  to  as  much  as  12  million  dollars  per  annum  : 
equal  to  the  value  of  the  whole  wheat  crop  of  the  state  (8,000,000 
bushels)  for  the  year  1870  ! 

It  seems,  as  yet,  to  be  very  imperfectly  understood,  that  the  dis 
tilled  product  of  grain  and  fruit,  is  a  veritable  poison  when  taken 
into  the  human  system.  How  greatly  the  food  resources  of  the 
nation  are  worse  than  wasted  by  thus  changing  them  into  a  subtle 
intoxicant,  is  pointedly  set  forth  in  the  following  brief  testimony  of 
a  leading  American  physican,  Dr.  Willard  Parker  : 

"Alcohol  is  a  poison  when  introduced  into  a  healthy  system  ;  it  is  a 
foreign  substance,  and,  of  itself,  incapable  of  making  any  repair, 
ultimately  inducing  diseases  of  the  system  as  surely  as  malaria  or 


454  HISTORY  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES.  [1872 

any  other  poison.  Our  life  insurance  companies  have  settled  this 
point.  It  is  now  established  that  a  young  man  who  is  sober  at 
twenty  and  continues  so,  has  an  average  chance  of  life  of  64  years 
and  2  months  ;  but  the  drinker  at  twenty,  if  he  continues  to  drink 
alcoholic  liquors,  has  an  average  of  life  of  35*  years."  A  difference, 
in  favor  of  temperance,  of  285  years. 

But  when  we  turn  to  contemplate  the  moral  loss  which  the 
traffic  entails,  it  must  be  confessed  to  be  altogether  beyond 
computation.  Whoever  has  heard  the  sad  details  in  the  case 
of  but  a  single  victim  of  intemperance,  must  admit  that  no 
adequate  conception  can  be  formed  of  the  sum  total  of  wretch 
edness  and  crime  which  mark  the  career  of  the  6o',ooo  or  more 
in  this  land  alone,  who  yearly  go  down  to  the  drunkard's 
grave. 

ARBITRATION   AND    PEACE. 

One  of  the  most  cheering  events  in  the  history  of  our 
country,  was  the  peaceful  settlement  of  the  Alabama  question 
by  arbitration.  Upon  the  conclusion  of  the  Civil  War,  the 
American  government  demanded  of  England  re-imbursement 
for  the  damages  inflicted  upon  its  shipping  by  the  Alabama 
and  other  Confederate  cruisers  which  had  been  fitted  out  in 
English  ports.  For  six  years  this  claim  was  resisted,  and,  at 
times,  such  was  the  feeling  of  irritation  produced  by  the  dis 
cussion,  that  it  appeared  as  though  a  war  would  certainly 
follow.  But  finally,  in  1871,  representatives  of  the  two  powers 
met  at  Washington  to  arrange  a  treaty.  One  of  the  provisions 
of  this  treaty  was,  that  a  Court  of  Arbitration  should  be  ap 
pointed,  which  should  convene  at  Geneva,  in  Switzerland, 
and  determine  the  amount  of  damages  properly  due  to  this 
country. 

Accordingly,  the  arbitrators  met  (1872)  at  the  place  ap 
pointed,  and  chose  Count  Sclopis,  of  Italy,  their  presiding 
officer.  Three  principles  of  law  formed  the  basis  of  the 


1872]  ARBITRATION  AND   PEACE.  455 

TREATY  OF  WASHINGTON  :  ist.  That  a  neutral  government  is 
bound  to  use  due  diligence  to  prevent  the  fitting  out,  within 
its  jurisdiction,  of  armed  vessels  intended  to  injure  a  friendly 
nation ;  ad.  That  a  neutral  government  must  not  allow  its 
ports  to  be  used  as  a  basis  of  naval  operations;  and  3d. 
That  a  neutral  government  is  responsible  for  the  violation  of 
these  provisions.  Much  of  the  time  of  the  sessions  was  taken 
up  in  the  consideration  of  "indirect  damages"  claimed  by 
the  United  States.  These,  however,  being  finally  rejected, 
the  arbitrators  awarded  to  the  United  States  the  sum  of 
$15.500,000  in  full  for  all  claims.  England,  greatly  to  her 
honor,  acquiesced  in  the  award  without  demur. 

As  the  consideration  of  the  methods  by  which  wars  may  be 
averted,  forms  one  of  the  most  important  topics  which  can 
engage  the  attention  of  the  student  of  history,  it  will  be  worth 
our  while  to  make  inquiry  as  to  what  measures  have  been  pro 
posed,  or  efforts  put  forth,  in  this  and  in  other  countries,  for 
the  preservation  of  international  peace. 

There  are  at  least  four  ways  open  to  nations  for  establishing 
their  rights,  without  having  recourse  to  the  sword. 

I.  NEGOTIATION. — The  settlement  of  all  causes  of  disagree 
ment  by  the  parties  themselves. 

II.  ARBITRATION. — When    the    parties   become  too    much 
excited   by  passion   to   reason,  they   may  agree  to  choose  an 
umpire. 

III.  MEDIATION. — When  rulers  become  impressed  with  the 
belief  that  they  must  solve  the  matters  in  dispute  by  force  of 
arms,  the  friendly  mediation  of  a  third  power  may  be  offered. 

IV.  A    CONGRESS    OF    NATIONS. — For  many  reasons,  this 
is  by  far  the  preferable  plan.     In  the  matter  of  economy,  for 
instance,  it  would  save  the  enormous  yearly  outlay  for  military 
preparations  in  times  of  peace,  as  well  as  the  extra  expendi 
tures  which  are  incurred  whenever  a  disagreement,  likely  to 
culminate  in  war,  arises. 


HISTORY  Of   THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1872 

In  the  history  of  our  own  country,  when  direct  Negotiation 
has  failed,  wars  have  been  frequently  averted  by  Mediation 
and  Arbitration.  The  following  are  instances  : 

1822.  The  question  of  restitution  for  certain  damages  in 
flicted  by  Great  Britain  during  the  war  of  1812,  was  referred 
for  arbitration  to  the  emperor  of  Russia. 

1827.  The  north-eastern  Boundary  Dispute  between  this 
country  and  Great  Britain,  was  referred  to  the  king  of  the 
Netherlands.  His  decision  not  being  satisfactory,  it  was  sub 
sequently  settled  by  the  Ashburton  Treaty. 

1838.  Matters  in  controversy  with  Mexico,  were  referred 
to  the  king  of  Prussia. 

1853.  All  outstanding  claims  which  had  arisen  between 
Great  Britain  and  the  United  States,  were  referred  to  two 
commissioners,  who  chose  an  umpire  to  decide  the  case. 

1858.  Claims  against  Chili  for  the  seizure  of  private  prop 
erty,  were  referred  for  settlement  to  the  king  of  the  Belgians. 

1860.  Claims  against  New  Grenada,  and  also  against  Costa 
Rica,  were  referred  to  commissions  mutually  appointed. 

1863.  Two  claims  against  Peru  were  referred,  one  of  them 
to  the  king  of  the  Belgians,  the  other  to  a  commission. 

1864.  A   serious   dispute   with   Great    Britain  concerning 
property  about  Puget  Sound,  was  referred  to  a  commission. 

1871.  Claims  for  damages  arising  out  of  the  troubles  in 
Cuba,  were  referred  to  a  commission  at  Washington,  who 
chose  the  Austrian  ambassador  to  be  umpire. 

The  excellent  moral  effect  of  the  Geneva  Arbitration  of 
1872,  has  been  evidenced  in  the  increasing  number  of  inter 
national  disputes  which  have  been  similarly  adjusted.  Of 
these  may  be  instanced  the  four  following,  as  having  occurred 
within  the  last  two  years. 

a.  A  dispute  between  the  Swiss  and  Italian  governments, 
respecting  a  portion  of  their  frontier,  was  referred  to  two  ar 
bitrators,  by  whom  an  umpire  was  chosen. 


1872]  ARBITRATION  AND    PEACE.  457 

b.  Between  China  and  Japan  a  trouble  arose,  growing  out 
of  the  murder  of  some  Japanese  on  the  island  of  Formosa. 
The  demand  for  compensation  was  not  acceded  to ;  an  angry 
controversy   ensued ;    and    preparations    for   hostilities  on   a 
large  scale  were  made  on  both  sides.     But  the  British  minister 
at  Pekin  offering  to  mediate,  his  friendly  services  were  ac 
cepted. 

c.  A  dispute  between  Japan  and  Peru,  growing  out  of  the 
seizure  of  a  vessel  belonging  to  the  latter  country,  which  was 
engaged  in  the  coolie  trade,  was  referred  to  the  emperor  of 
Russia  for  decision. 

d.  A  controversy  between  England  and  Portugal  relative 
to  the  possession  of  the  country  around  Delagoa  bay,  South 
Africa,  was  settled  by  referring  the  case  to  the  adjudication 
of  the  president  of  the  French  Republic. 

But,  unhappily,  while  many  possible  contests  have  been  by 
these  means  avoided,  such  has  not  been  the  result  in  all  the 
cases  of  dispute  which  have  recently  arisen.  The  wars  of  the 
last  twenty  years  have  been  as  baseless  in  their  causes,  and  as 
bloody  in  execution,  as  any  which  preceded  them.  Thus  the 
terrible  war  of  1870  between  France  and  Germany,  was  brought 
about  simply  by  a  personal  affront  offered  by  the  French  ambas 
sador  to  the  Prussian  king  !  But  let  us  now  inquire  what  are 
the  peculiar  merits  of  method  IV., — a  Congress  of  Nations. 

The  plan  of  such  a  congress,  which  was  favored  by  Henry 
the  Fourth,  of  France,  found  an  able  and  more  consistent 
exponent  in  William  Penn.  At  a  time  (1693)  when  most  of 
the  nations  of  Europe  were  engaged  in  a  general  war,  Penn 
made  an  effort  to  impress  the  minds  of  his  contemporaries 
with  a  much  more  rational  method  of  settling  their  differences. 
With  this  end  in  view,  he  produced  "An  Essay  toward  the 
present  and  future  peace  of  Europe,  by  the  establishment  of 
an  European  diet,  parliament  or  estates."  In  this  remarkable 
essay,  the  writer,  after  contrasting  the  advantages  of  peace, 
tf  39 


458  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1872 

with  the  evils,  expenses  and  desolations  of  war,  shows  that  it 
should  be  the  chief  object  of  government  to  preserve  the 
peace  among  its  members,  and,  with  that  intent,  the  redress 
of  grievances  should  be  intrusted  to  impartial  hands.  Having 
suggested  the  expediency  of  applying  to  the  controversies 
between  nations  the  same  principles  as  are  applied  to  those 
between  individuals,  he  therefore  recommends  the  institution 
of  a  General  Congress,  by  whom  a  code  of  laws  for  the  regu 
lation  of  their  mutual  intercourse  should  be  agreed  upon,  and 
to  which  all  should  be  required  to  submit. 

Penn's  plan  was  taken  but  little  notice  of  until  about  the 
year  1835,  when  it  was  revived  by  WILLIAM  LADD,  of  New 
England,  who  added  to  the  original  proposition  the  sugges 
tion  of  an  International  Court.  This  amended  plan,  which 
has  been  received  with  so  much  favor  by  all  lovers  of  peace, 
is  as  follows  : 

i. — A  Congress  of  Ambassadors,  from  all  those  Christian 
and  civilized  nations  who  choose  to  send  them,  for  the  purpose 
of  settling  the  principles  of  international  law  by  a  mutually 
binding  compact  and  agreement ;  and  also  of  devising  and 
promoting  plans  for  the  preservation  of  peace  and  amelio 
rating  the  condition  of  man. 

2. — A  High  Court  of  Nations •,  composed  of  the  most  able 
civilians  in  the  world,  to  arbitrate  or  judge  such  cases,  as,  by 
the  mutual  consent  of  two  or  more  contending  nations,  should 
be  brought  before  it. 

These  propositions  were  afterward  extensively  advocated  by 
Elihu  Burritt,  and  were  presented  by  him  at  the  great  Peace 
Congresses  which  were  held  at  Brussels,  Paris,  Frankfort  and 
London,  in  the  four  years  from  1848  to  1851. 

In  1849,  RICHARD  COBDEN,  in  response  to  more  than 
200,000  petitioners,  presented  a  motion  in  the  British  House 
of  Commons,  in  favor  of  stipulated  arbitration  as  a  substitute 
for  war,  but  it  was  not  carried.  The  measure  was  also  ear- 


1873]  ARBITRATION  AND   PEACE.  459 

nestly  advocated  by  JOHN  BRIGHT.  Three  years  later,  the 
legislatures  of  several  of  our  states  before  whom  the  subject 
was  brought,  gave  their  votes  in  its  favor.  Little  was  then 
heard  of  the  matter  for  the  succeeding  twenty  years,  until  the 
success  of  the  Geneva  Arbitration,  together  with  the  consid 
eration  of  the  folly  which  led  to  the  Franco-Prussian  war 
and  the  barbarities  accompanying  it,  brought  the  subject  again 
prominently  forward. 

In  1873,  the  House  of  Commons,  on  motion  of  HENRY 
RICHARD,  adopted  a  resolution  recommending  the  Queen  to 
take  steps  "  to  enter  into  communication  with  foreign  powers, 
with  a  view  to  the  further  improvement  of  international  law  ; 
and  the  establishment  of  a  general  and  permanent  system  of 
international  arbitration."  And  in  the  following  year,  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  the  United  States  recommended, 
by  a  unanimous  vote,  that  arbitration  should  be  made  a 
national  substitute  for  war ;  and  that  thereafter,  in  all  treaties 
between  the  United  States  and  foreign  powers,  provision  should 
be  made,  if  practicable,  that ' '  war  shall  not  be  declared  by  either 
of  the  contracting  parties  against  the  other  until  efforts  have 
been  made  to  adjust  all  alleged  causes  of  difficulty  by  impartial 
arbitration." 

In  continuation  of  the  above  favorable  action  on  the  part 
of  the  governments  of  Great  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
the  Italian  parliament  at  Rome,  without  a  dissenting  voice, 
passed  a  motion  in  favor  of  international  arbitration.  The 
lower  house  of  the  Swedish  Diet,  as  well  as  the  parliament  of 
Holland,  have  likewise  cast  their  votes  in  its  favor,  while 
a  similar  resolution  is  pending  in  the  Belgian  Chamber  of 
Representatives. 

Meanwhile,  in  1873,  a  conference  was  held  at  Brussels, 
composed  of  thirty-five  eminent  publicists  and  jurists  of 
different  nations,  who  organized  the  "Association  for  the 
Reform  and  Codification  of  the  Law  of  Nations;"  and  Eng- 


46o  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1875 

lish,  French  and  Italian  branches  were  formed.  The  following 
year,  the  association  met  at  Geneva,  in  the  same  hall  in  which 
the  Arbitration  Court  had  convened  to  decide  the  Alabama 
question.  Finally,  in  1875,  a  meeting  was  held  at  the  Hague, 
whereat  committees  were  appointed  to  bring  the  subjects  of 
arbitration  and  a  proportionate  reduction  of  armaments  before 
the  governments  of  Christendom.  Thus  rests  this  vital  matter 
to-day.  The  Christian  duty  of  nations  herein,  may  be  com 
prised  in  the  one  word — forbearance.  Not  alone  between 
individuals,  but  between  states  and  nations,  is  that  admoni 
tion  of  Scripture  obligatory,  which  says, — "  Forbearing  one 
another  in  love." 

Notwithstanding  what  has  here  been  said,  the  army  and  navy 
constitute,  in  many  of  their  offices,  too  valuable  a  portion  of 
the  public  service  to  be  entirely  dispensed  with.  But  while  we 
may  with  advantage  give  up  the  fortifications  and  gun-boats, 
and  all  munitions  of  war,  yet  an  efficient  and  well-organized 
body  of  men  will  still  be  needed  to  carry  on  the  operations 
of  the  land  and  coast  survey,  the  weather  signal  service,  the 
maintenance  of  lighthouses  and  life-saving  stations,  the  re 
moving  of  river  and  harbor  obstructions,  and  other  useful  and 
beneficial  public  works.  Our  navy,  too,  may  become  the 
"white-winged  messengers  of  peace,"  carrying  timely  aid  to 
far-:ofT  lands  to  sufferers  by  famine  and  the  flood. 


SCIENCE  IN  AMERICA. 

THE  AMERICAN  PHILOSOPHICAL  SOCIETY,  originated  at  Phila 
delphia  in  1743,  but  not  formally  organized  until  1769,  owed 
its  formation,  in  great  measure,  to  the  exertions  of  Benjamin 
Franklin.  Franklin,  who  was  elected  its  first  president,  was 
then  engaged  upon  those  highly  interesting  experiments  in 
electricity  and  meteorology  which  caused  him  to  be  as 
widely  known  as  a  scientific  investigator  as  he  subsequently 


iS75]  SCIENCE  IN  AMERICA.  461 

was   as   a  statesman.     It  is    from  that  period  also  that  our 
record  of  scientific  progress  dates. 

A  clockmaker's  apprentice,  David  Rittenhouse,  who  had 
turned  his  attention  to  astronomical  study,  constructed  two 
remarkable  orreries  (still  to  be  seen  at  the  College  of  New 
Jersey  and  the  University  of  Pennsylvania),  which  give  the 
movements  and  relative  positions  of  the  heavenly  bodies  for 
each  year,  month,  day  and  hour  for  the  period  of  5000 
years.  This  American  Ferguson,  who  succeeded  Franklin 
in  the  presidency  of  the  Philosophical  Society,  was  engaged 
upon  the  first  work  undertaken  by  that  body  the  year  it 
was  formed,  namely,  in  observations  upon  the  transit  of 
Venus  (1769).  Rittenhouse  was  also  employed  to  superin 
tend  the  running  of  the  boundary-lines  between  several  of 
the  States. 

Robert  Hare,  following  the  lead  of  Franklin,  demonstrated 
(1801)  the  use  of  the  oxy-hydrogen  blow-pipe  as  a. generator 
of  intense  heat,  improved  the  voltaic  battery  by  the  construc 
tion  of  his  deflagrator  (1820),  and  likewise  introduced  many 
other  ingenious  appliances  in  connection  with  chemistry  and 
electro-magnetism.  John  W.  Draper,  of  New  York,  in 
continuation  of  researches  into  the  properties  of  light, 
applied  photographic  methods  to  obtaining  pictures  of  the 
human  countenance,  to  the  study  of  spectrum  analysis,  and  in 
securing  views  of  the  moon.  Improved  results  in  the  same 
direction  were  obtained  by  his  son,  Henry  Draper,  and  by 
Lewis  M.  Rutherford.  General  interest  in  chemical  science 
had  been  fostered  by  the  publication  of  the  Journal  of  Science 
and  Arts  (1814),  long  edited  thereafter  by  Benjamin  Silliman, 
Sr.  ;  also  by  Silliman's  public  lectures,  and  by  those  delivered 
before  his  class  at  Yale  College.  Analytic  chemistry  owes 
much  to  the  recent  labors  of  Gibbs  and  Genth ;  theoretic 
chemistry,  to  Professors  Hunt  and  Cooke.  In  mineralogy, 
the  name  of  James  D.  Dana  is  widely  known  through  his  text- 
39* 


462  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1875 

books,  the  first  of  which  appeared  as  early  as  1837.  The 
gyratory  or  cyclonic  movement  of  storms  was  described  by 
Redfield,  of  New  York  (1827),  and  later  by  Espy,  of  Pennsyl 
vania,  in  his  treatise  on  the  Philosophy  of  Storms  (1841)  ;  the 
nature  of  star-showers,  by  Denison  Olmsted,  of  New  Haven, 
(1834);  cometary  orbits  and  auroral  phenomena,  by  Elias 
Loomis,  also  of  New  Haven ;  sun-spots  and  solar  physics,  by 
Professor  Young,  of  Dartmouth. 

John  Bartram,  whose  botanic  garden,  near  Philadelphia, 
became  such  an  object  of  interest  to  lovers  of  plants  in  this 
country,  and  to  visitors  from  Europe,  made  numerous  excur 
sions  in  the  Southern  seaboard  states,  and,  returning  there 
from  with  many  rare  and  beautiful  botanic  treasures,  freely 
bestowed  them  upon  his  correspondents  in  both  hemispheres. 
By  Linnaeus  he  was  spoken  of  as  "  the  greatest  natural  botanist 
in  the  world."  He  died  in  1777,  leaving  a  son  William, 
who  had  been  his  companion  in  travel,  and  was  similarly 
interested  in  botanical  pursuits.  The  trees  of  the  United 
States  were  described  by  F.  A.  Michaux  (1803).  Pursh  also 
published  a  flora  (1814),  which  was  followed  by  the  manual 
of  Eaton.  All  of  these,  however,  adhered  to  the  artificial 
classification  of  Linnaeus.  But  in  1831  appeared  the  work  of 
John  Torrey,  arranged  according  to  the  natural  system  of 
Lindley,  the  method  now  universally  adopted.  The  manuals 
of  Asa  Gray,  of  Harvard,  published  during  the  last  forty 
years,  are  familiar  to  all. 

Alexander  Wilson,  a  schoolmaster  of  Philadelphia,  of 
Scotch  nativity,  becoming  infected  with  his  friend  Bartram's 
love  for  natural  science,  took  up  the  special  study  of  birds, 
and  between  the  years  1804  and  1817  made  those  extensive 
observations  in  field  and  forest  which  resulted  in  the  publi 
cation  of  his  American  Ornithology,  in  seven  volumes,  hand 
somely  illustrated.  An  eighth  volume,  in  continuation  of 
the  series,  was  afterward  published  by  Charles  Lucien  Bona- 


1 875]  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION.  463 

parte,  a  nephew  of  Napoleon  •  while,  a  few  years  later,  the 
rival  work  of  John  James  Audubon  appeared.  Audubon,  in 
association  with  John  Bachman,  also  published  (1846-' 5  4)  a 
similar  finely  illustrated  work  upon  the  Viviparous  Quadru 
peds  of  America.  Whilst  Audubon  was  thus  engaged,  a  Swiss 
scholar,  Louis  Agassiz,  came  to  this  country  (1846)  ;  and 
having  accepted  the  chair  of  zoology  and  geology  at  Harvard 
College,  his  researches  in  the  studies  named,  and  in  other 
allied  branches,  together  with  his  thorough  methods  of  im 
parting  instruction  to  his  pupils,  resulted  in  raising  up  many 
•enthusiastic  students  of  natural  science.  Of  late  years  the 
study  and  classification  of  American  birds  and  insects  have 
been  pursued  by  Cassin,  Packard,  Brewer,  Baird,  the  Le 
Contes,  and  others. 

In  medical  practice  and  surgery,  probably  the  most  import 
ant  recent  discovery  has  been  that  of  the  use,  as  anaesthetics, 
of  nitrous  oxide  gas  and  of  sulphuric  ether.  The  first  was  suc 
cessfully  administered  by  Horace  Wells,  a  dentist  of  Hartford, 
Connecticut,  in  1844;  the  ether  very  soon  afterward  by  Dr. 
W.  T.  G.  Morton  (a  pupil  of  Wells),  and  by  Charles  T. 
Jackson,  a  Boston  chemist. 

THE  SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION,  organized  at  Washington 
(1846)  by  Act  of  Congress,  and  intrusted  to  a  Board  of 
Regents,  derives  its  revenue  from  a  large  fund  bequeathed  by 
James  Smithson,  an  Englishman,  "for  the  increase  and  dif 
fusion  of  knowledge  among  men."  It  has  greatly  helped  the 
cause  of  science  by  affording  assistance  in  the  publication  of 
scientific  memoirs,  the  expenses  of  which  could  not  have 
been  defrayed  by  the  investigators  themselves.  The  varied 
and  valuable  researches  of  Joseph  Henry,  the  Secretary  of  the 
Institution,  have  extended  over  a  period  of  half  a  century. 
As  early  as  1830,  being  engaged  in  experimenting  upon 
statical  electricity,  he  demonstrated  the  practicability  of  an 
electric  telegraph  a  year  before  the  perfected  invention  of 


464  HISTORY  OF   THE    UNITED   STATES.  [1875 

Professor  Morse,  mention  of  which  will  be  found  in  the  next 
section. 

The  explorations  and  surveys  undertaken  by  the  Bureau  of 
Topographical  Engineers  (i853~'56)  "to  ascertain  the  most 
practicable  and  economical  route  for  a  railroad  from  the 
Missouri  river  to  the  Pacific  ocean  ;"  the  geological  survey  of 
the  4oth  parallel,  under  the  superintendence  of  Clarence 
King  (1867-' 69);  the  similar  surveys  of  the  Western  terri 
tories,  in  charge  of  George  M.  Wheeler  and  Dr.  F.  V.  Hay- 
den,  now  in  progress, — have  added  much  to  our  knowledge, 
not  only  of  the  topography  of  the  country,  but  of  its  plants, 
animals,  rock-formations,  etc.  Especially  has  the  study  of 
palaeontology  been  advanced  by  the  discovery  of  extensive 
fossil  remains  in  that  region.  The  first  of  these,  publicly 
noticed,  were  the  mammalian  fauna  found  in  the  Mauvaises 
Terres  of  Nebraska  (1847),  ar>d  described  by  Joseph  Leidy. 
Very  many  new  species  of  fossil  saurians  and  fishes,  as  well 
as  of  mammals,  have  been  described  by  Professors  Leidy, 
Cope  and  Marsh.  The  YELLOWSTONE  NATIONAL  PARK — with 
its  grand  canon,  waterfall,  lakes  and  spouting  springs — was 
set  apart  by  act  of  Congress  (1872),  for  the  public  use  and 
enjoyment  for  ever.  It  is  situated  in  the  north-west  corner 
of  Wyoming  Territory',  and  comprises  an  area  of  3575  square 
miles. 

A  FEW  STATISTICS   OF   PROGRESS. 

In  the  year  1820,  the  population  of  the  twenty  states  then 
comprising  the  United  States,  was  5,300,000;  of  which 
number,  1,000,000  were  persons  of  color.  By  the  census  of 
1870,  with  37  states  and  TO  territories,  the  population  was  as 
certained  to  be  upward  of  38,500,000  ;  of  which  total,  4,900,- 
ooo  were  colored.  The  number  of  Chinese  was  63,000  ;  five- 
sixths  of  them  being  located  in  California,  and  the  rest  mostly 
in  Oregon  and  Nevada. 


A   FEW  STATISTICS   OF  PROGRESS. 


465 


Much  of  this  rapid  increase  of  population  has,  of  course, 
been  due  to  immigration ;  the  largest  accessions  coming  from 
the  British  Isles  and  Germany.  The  business  prostration 
which  prevailed  in  Great  Britain  after  the  great  wars  with 
Napoleon,  together  with  the  dissatisfaction  caused  by  the  op 
pressive  operation  of  the  Corn  Laws,  led  many  of  the  laboring 
classes  to  seek  homes  elsewhere.  The  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws 
by  parliament,  in  1846  (removing  thereby  the  import  duty  on 
grain),  happened  too  late  to  arrest  the  outflow  of  emigrants, 
most  of  whom  came  to  America.  Still  further  impetus  was, 
moreover,  given  to  the  movement,  by  the  British  commercial 
crisis  of  1847,  and  by  the  prevalence,  at  the  same  time,  of  the 
potato  disease.  Whilst,  in  1845,  tne  number  of  emigrants 
leaving  the  United  Kingdom  amounted  to  but  93,000,  in  1851 
the  number  had  increased  to  368,000,  of  whom  just  two-thirds 
(244,000)  settled  in  this  country. 

The  harsh  usages  of  war,  but  especially  compulsion  to  per 
form  military  service,  have,  since  the  Franco-Prussian  war  of 
1870,  driven  tens  of  thousands  of  Germans  to  America,  where 
there  are  no  such  statute  requirements  in  operation.  The 
plains  of  Pomerania  in  eastern  Prussia,  have  lost  large  numbers 
of  their  inhabitants  upon  this  account ;  and  so  alarming  became 
the  movement  for  awhile,  that  the  German  government  threat 
ened  to  use  coercive  measures  to  prevent  this  wholesale  de 
population. 

The  like  causes,  operating  in  Russia,  have  resulted  in  a 
similar  expatriation  of  the  MENNONITES  from  the  southern 
portion  of  that  kingdom.  Between  1873  and  1876,  over 
10,000  of  that  sect  have  settled  in  America,  principally  in 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  Dacotah  and  Minnesota,  and  in  the  Mani 
toba  province  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

So  great  an  influx  of  population,  accompanied,  as  it  was, 
by  the  building  of  railways  and  other  internal  improvements, 
exercised  a  great  influence  in  rapidly  developing  the  states 


u* 


466  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1870 

of  the  West.  At  the  same  time  reaping  and  mowing  machines 
began  to  come  into  use.  The  first  patent  for  a  reaper  was 
taken  out  in  1833,  by  Schnebly,  of  Maryland.  The  first  suc 
cessful  mower,  which  came  into  use  in  1831,  was  that  of 
Manning,  of  New  Jersey,  followed  by  Ambler's  improvement 
in  1834.  These  were  greatly  surpassed  by  those  of  Hussey 
and  McCormick,  which  have  gained  a  world-wide  reputation. 
Other  improved  machinery,  such  as  horse-rakes,  and  horse- 
and  steam-threshers,  have  wonderfully  facilitated  the  in-gath 
ering  of  crops.  The  yield  of  the  principal  food  crops  of 
1870,  was  as  follows: 

Indian  Corn        .        .        .  992  million  Bushels. 

Oats 255  " 

Wheat         ....  230  " 

Barley          ....  26  " 

Rye 15  « 

Buckwheat          .  '      .        .  81  " 

Potatoes      .         .         .        .  1 20  " 

These  seven  crops  were  planted  on  66^  million  acres.  Nearly 
all  of  the  product  of  barley,  and  a  large  portion  of  the  rye, 
were  converted  into  malt  for  beer  and  whiskey. 

Of  tobacco  there  were  356,000  acres  planted,  yielding  263 
million  pounds.  But  as  the  ways  in  which  the  hurtful  weed 
can  be  usefully  employed,  are  extremely  limited,  a  decrease 
in  this  crop  would  be  advantageous  to  the  people  generally. 

Cotton  is  the  most  valuable  single  product  of  American  soil. 
An  enormous  increase  in  its  production  resulted,  upon  the 
invention  of  the  cotton-gin  or  cleaner,  by  Eli  Whitney.  A 
native  of  Massachusetts,  Whitney  graduated  at  Yale  College  in 
1792,  and,  the  same  year,  went  to  Georgia  as  a  teacher.  Ob 
serving  how  slow  and  difficult  was  the  work  of  separating  by 
hand  the  cotton  from  the  seed,  he  sought  to  devise  some 
mechanical  contrivance  for  this  purpose,  and  in  a  few  months 
was  rewarded  with  success.  By  reason  of  this  discovery,  in 


1870]  A   FEW  STATISTICS   OF  PROGRESS.  467 

the  eight  years  from  1792  to  1800,  the  exports  of  cotton  in 
creased  from  138,000  Ibs.,  worth  $30,000,  to  18,000,000  Ibs., 
worth  $3,000,000.  By  the  census  of  1870,  the  cotton  crop 
amounted  to  3,100,000  bales,  averaging  440  Ibs.  to  the  bale. 
Nearly  two-thirds  of  this  was  exported  ;  the  remainder  was 
consumed  in  American  mills. 

The  number  of  cotton-manufacturing  establishments,  by  the 
census,  was  956.  Massachusetts  had  the  greatest  number, 
191.  Georgia  stood  first  of  the  Southern  states,  having  34. 
Of  woolen  factories  there  were  2891.  Pennsylvania  came 
first,  with  457 ;  in  the  South,  Kentucky  led,  with  125. 

Notwithstanding  the  laws  which  have  been  passed  in  New 
England,  to  prevent  the  employment  of  children  in  the  cotton 
and  woolen  mills  at  too  early  an  age,  the  indifference  and  cu 
pidity  of  parents  and  employers  have  caused  the  statutes  to  be 
almost  entirely  disregarded.  A  Massachusetts  report  (1870) 
says,  "  The  mills  all  over  the  state,  the  shops  in  city  and  town, 
are  full  of  children  deprived  of  their  right  to  such  education 
as  will  fit  them  for  the  possibilities  of  their  after-life,  and  no 
body  thinks  of  obeying  the  school  laws."  In  Rhode  Island, 
it  appeared  by  the  census  of  1870,  that  the  number  of  those 
who  could  neither  read  nor  write  was  five  times  greater  than 
it  was  in  1850  !  Not  ignorance  alone,  but  depravity  and  overt 
crime  result  from  this  species  of  semi-enslavement.  To  obvi 
ate  these  evils,  compulsory  education  is  generally  recommended, 
in  addition  to  the  enactment  and  enforcement  of  stringent 
laws  to  prevent  the  too  early  employment  of  the  children. 

The  first  patent  for  a  sewing-machine,  was  granted  to  J.  J. 
Greenough,  of  Washington,  but  the  first  really  practical  one, 
was  that  patented  by  Elias  Howe  in  1846.  This  was  followed 
by  the  machines  of  Wheeler  and  Wilson,  Grover  and  Baker, 
Singer  and  Co.,  and  several  others.  In  1870,  the  numbei 
manufactured  in  this  country  amounted  to  nearly  500,000. 
The  coal  yield  of  1870  was  estimated  at  37  million  tons 


468  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1870 

Pennsylvania  producing  three-fourths  of  the  total.  The  yield 
of  iron  ore  was  very  nearly  2  million  tons,  one-third  of  it 
being  mined  in  Pennsylvania.  The  discovery,  made  in  1861, 
that  coal-oil  or  petroleum,  existed  in  the  western  part  of  Penn 
sylvania  and  in  West  Virginia,  in  such  great  quantities  as  to 
become  a  valuable  commercial  product,  caused  for  a  time  a 
high  state  of  excitement  and  much  speculation.  A  great 
number  of  companies  were  organized,  but  the  stock  of  many 
soon  became  of  little  or  no  value.  Nevertheless,  the  business 
assumed  large  proportions,  so  that  petroleum  presently  became 
one  of  the  principal  articles  of  export. 

Of  precious  metals,  the  yield  of  1871  was  estimated  at  66 
million  dollars.  Nevada  and  California  each  produced  nearly 
a  third  of  the  total ;  the  territories  of  Montana,  Idaho  and 
Colorado,  most  of  the  remainder. 

The  first  patent  issued  by  the  government  was  one  to 
William  Pollard  (1790)  for  an  improved  spinning-machine. 
At  the  expiration  of  fifty  years  the  annual  issues  amounted  to 
about  500;  but  in  the  single  year  1876,  the  number  had 
risen  to  upward  of  17,000. 

Of  the  very  great  number  of  American  inventions  useful  in 
the  arts,  none  has  proved  capable  of  such  extensive  and  varied 
applications,  as  the  vulcanization  of  india-rubber :  that  is  to 
say,  its  hardening  by  combination  with  sulphur.  This  dis 
covery  was  made  by  Charles  Goodyear,  of  New  Haven,  about 
the  year  1835.  A  few  of  the  many  uses  to  which  this  sub 
stance  can  be  applied,  are  the  manufacture  of  water-proof 
boots  and  overshoes,  flexible  gas-pipes  and  water-pipes,  buffers 
for  railway  carriages,  mats  for  doors  and  rooms,  machinery- 
belts,  braces,  telegraph  cables,  hats,  harness,  wheels,  and  as 
washers  in  the  fitting  of  countless  sorts  of  apparatus  and  ma 
chinery.  The  rubber,  combined  with  finely  divided  sand,  as 
well  as  sulphur,  is  made  into  ink-erasers ;  with  tar  and  sulphur, 
it  forms  a  mixture  which  is  run  into  moulds,  and  hardens  with 


. ,. 

1870]  A   FEW  STATISTICS   OF  PROGRESS.  469    - 

the  lustre  and  blackness  of  jet.  In  this  manner  are  made 
brackets,  combs,  pencil-cases,  thimbles,  and  a  great  variety 
of  useful  and  ornamental  articles. 

The  Electric  Telegraph  was  invented  by  Samuel  T.  B. 
Morse,  of  New  York,  in  1832,  and  exhibited  to  Congress  in 
1837;  but  it  was  not  until  1843  tnat  tnat  body  agreed  to  ex 
tend  aid  for  an  experimental  line  to  be  built  from  Washington 
to  Baltimore.  The  alphabet  of  Morse  is  a  series  of  dots  and 
dashes.  It  has  been  superseded  in.  many  places  by  House's 
instrument,  which  prints  the  letters  themselves.  There  are 
now  over  75,000  miles  of  telegraph  in  operation  in  this 
country.  The  first  ocean  telegraph  cable  between  Europe  and 
America  was  successfully  laid  and  operated  in  1866.  Five 
lines  are  now  in  operation,  four  from  Ireland  and  one  from 
France. 

Experiments  upon  the  transmission  of  musical  tones  by 
telegraphy  were  made  (1873-' 76)  by  E.  P.  Gray,  of  Chicago. 
This  harmonic  process,  as  it  is  called,  allows  several  simul 
taneous  transmissions  to  be  made  over  the  same  wire.  By 
the  duplex  and  quadruple*  methods,  which  are  adaptations 
of  the  harmonic  process,  the  working  capacity  of  the  lines 
may,  at  a  trifling  expense,  and  without  the  use  of  additional 
wires,  be  greatly  augmented.  Prof.  Graham  A.  Bell,  of  the 
Massachusetts  Institute  of  Technology,  invented,  in  1876,  the 
telephone,  an  attachment  to  the  electro-magnetic  battery,  by 
which  articulate  sounds  are  made  audible  through  the  vibra 
tions  of  a  metallic  disk  responding  to  the  sounds  uttered  by 
the  sender.  In  other  words,  telephony  is  the  conversion  of 
the  electric  current  effect  into  sound.  Perhaps  more  wonder 
ful  as  an  invention  than  any  of  the  above  (but  not  as  yet  used 
in  connection  with  telegraphy)  is  the  phonograph,  or  sound- 
writer,  an  instrument  which  records  upon  metal  foil  impres 
sions  of  spoken  words,  and,  by  the  use  of  the  impressed  foil, 
will  itself  audibly  repeat  them.  This  it  may  do,  apparently, 

40 


470  HISTORY  OF  THE    UNITED  STATES.  [1875 

centuries  after  the  words  were  first  uttered.  This  ingenious 
piece  of  mechanism  is  the  invention  of  T.  A.  Edison,  of 
Newark,  New  Jersey. 

The  first  steamboat  constructed  in  the  United  States  to 
carry  passengers,  was  built  at  Philadelphia  in  1787,  by  John 
Fitch.  The  motor  was  a  low-pressure  engine,  and  the  boat 
was  propelled  by  a  paddle-wheel  at  the  stern.  Oliver  Evans, 
of  the  same  city,  in  1804,  first  practically  applied  to  a  boat, 
the  high-pressure  engine  ;  but  this  craft  was  merely  used  for 
dock-dredging  purposes.  The  first  really  successful  applica 
tion  of  the  power,  was  that  of  Robert  Fulton,  whose  boat, 
the  Clermont,  a  small  side-wheel  steamer,  in  1807  ascended 
the  Hudson,  from  New  York  to  Albany.  Improvements  made 
in  1815  by  Robert  L.  Stevens,  resulted  in  securing  a  higher 
rate  of  speed. 

In  1838,  the  first  ocean  steamship  from  England,  the  Sirius, 
arrived  in  the  harbor  of  New  York. 

The  first  railroad  in  the  United  States  was  constructed  in 
1826.  It  connected  the  town  of  Quincy,  Massachusetts,  with 
Neponset,  and  was  but  three  miles  in  length.  It  was  built  to 
supply  the  granite  for  Bunker  Hill  monument.  The  cars  were 
drawn  by  horses.  A  railway  was  built  the  next  year,  1827,  at 
Mauch  Chunk,  Pennsylvania,  the  cars  being  raised  by  horse 
power  to  the  summit  of  the  mountain,  and  descending  by 
gravity.  In  1828,  twelve  miles  of  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio 
railroad  were  built  and  operated  as  a  passenger  railway.  The 
same  year  the  first  locomotive  engine  used  in  America  (but  built 
in  England,  by  Stephenson),  was  run  upon  a  short  road  of 
the  Delaware  and  Hudson  Canal  Company,  connecting  with 
their  mines.  At  the  West  Point  foundry,  New  York,  the  first 
American  built  locomotive  was  constructed.  It  was  operated 
on  the  South  Carolina  railway  in  1831.  Other  roads  were 
constructed  in  that  and  the  preceding  year.  The  total  length 


1876]  A  FEW  STATISTICS   OF  PKOGKESS.  471 

of  railway  lines  open  for  traffic  in  1875,  was  about  70,000 
miles. 

The  first  Pacific  Railroad  was  built  principally  between  the 
years  1866  and  1868.  Lavish  grants  of  money  and  of  land 
were  conceded  by  the  government  to  two  chartered  companies: 
the  Union  Pacffic,  controlling  the  eastern  section  of  1032 
miles  from  Omaha,  Nebraska,  to  Ogden  City,  Utah ;  and 
the  Central  Pacific,  or  western  section  of  88 1  miles,  from 
Ogden  to  San  Francisco.  The  money  bounty  advanced  by 
the  government  in  aid  of  the  construction,  and  for  which 
second  mortgage  bonds  were  issued  by  the  companies,  aver 
aged  $30,000  per  mile  ;  making  a  total  of  50  million  dollars. 
The  company  had  also  issued  first  mortgage  bonds  to  the  same 
amount.  Portions  of  the  road  were  constructed  with  extraor 
dinary  celerity,  as  much  as  a  mile  or  more  of  track  being  laid 
in  one  day.  The  cost  of  construction,  however,  of  the  Union 
Pacific  railroad,  was  not  so  great  as  the  means  in  hand.  The 
company  therefore,  having  a  plethora  of  resources,  by  a  fraudu 
lent  process  contracted  with  itself  for  an  ostensible  price,  to 
build  its  own  road.  Many  members  of  Congress  were  impli 
cated  in  furthering  this  disgraceful  transaction,  which  involved 
millions  of  dollars,  and  was  known  as  the  "  Credit  Mobilier" 
scheme. 

The  Northern  Pacific  railway,  projected  a  little  later,  was 
intended  to  connect  Duluth,  at  the  west  end  of  Lake  Superior, 
with  Puget  Sound.  Congress  granted,  in  aid  of  it,  over  50 
million  acres  of  land, — an  area  equal  to  ten  states  of  the  size 
of  Massachusetts.  Bonds  of  the  company,  to  a  very  large 
amount,  were  disposed  of,  when,  in  1873,  its  chief  projectors 
failed.  Much  financial  distress  and  many  failures  followed, 
and  business  generally  experienced  greater  depression  than 
had  been  known  since  the  termination  of  the  Civil  War. 

This  depressed  condition  of  affairs  still  continues.  Never 
before,  in  our  country's  history,  have  the  lamentable  results 


47 2  HISTORY  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES.  [1876 

of  overtrading,  speculation,  the  haste  to  be  rich  even  at  the 
sacrifice  of  integrity,  been  so  marked  as  is  the  case  at  this 
day.  Gambling  in  gold  and  stocks,  and  even  in  wheat  and 
corn — the  very  necessaries  of  life — is  largely  prevalent  in  the 
leading  cities ;  while  startling  defalcations  by  officers  high  in 
places  of  trust,  are  of  every-day  occurrence".  And  now,  in 
this  Centennial  Year  of  American  Independence,  when  our 
country  will  exhibit  the  evidences  of  her  progress  to  all  the 
nations  of  the  globe,  what  have  we  to  show  of  a  more  exalted 
sentiment  of  honor  and  integrity  than  prevailed  of  yore,  or 
of  a  more  faithful  administration  of  public  duties?  Further 
more,  while  we  behold  exhibited  the  products  of  our  mines, 
the  fabrics  from  our  factories  and  looms,  do  we  feel  that  we 
have  sufficiently  regarded  the  low  estate  of  the  toilers  who 
have  helped  us  to  all  this  wealth  ?  that  we  have  equally  desired 
for  ourselves  and  for  them,  a  growth  in  holiness  and  in  the 
knowledge  of  Him  from  whom  all  blessings  flow  ?  It  is  of 
small  moment  that  we  should  be  accounted  great,  if  we  be 
not  earnestly  engaged  to  reap  those  riches  which  are  more 
enduring. 


INDEX. 


ABERCROMBIE.  General,  286. 
Acadie,  colonization  of,  107. 

French  Neutrals  of,  275. 
Adams,  John,  304,  328,  332. 

second  president,  337. 

death  of,  383. 
Adams,  J.  Q.,  negotiates,  366,  373. 

president,  380. 
Agassiz,  Louis,  463. 
Aix-la-Chapelle,  peace  of,  268. 
Alabama  admitted,  374. 
Alabama,  territorial,  332. 
Alabama,  career  of  the,  423. 

Claims  Commission,  454. 
Alarcon,  expedition  of,  61. 
Alaska,  379,  435. 
Albany,  settlement  of,  134. 
Albemarle  settlements,  early,  176, 179. 
Alexander,  Sir  William,  143. 
Algiers,  war  with,  369. 
Algonquins,  account  of  the,  37. 
Amendment,  Thirteenth,  428. 

Fourteenth,  434. 

Fifteenth,  437. 

America,  discovery  of,  14,  25. 
American  Philosophical  Society,  460. 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  45. 
Amherst,  General,  287. 
Amidas  and  Barlow  at  Roanoke,  84. 
Anresthetics,  application  of,  463. 
Andre,  Major,  314. 
Andros,  Sir  Edmund,  187,  209,  229. 
Antinomian  controversy,  141,  145. 
Anti-Slavery  agitation,  406. 
Arbitration  and  peace,  454. 
Archdale,  John,  of  Carolina,  230. 
Argall,  Samuel  (Captain),  99,  109. 
Arkansas  admitted,  394. 
Arnold,  treason  of,  314. 
Ashburton  Treaty,  397. 
Assiento,  the,  251. 
Astoria,  379,  401. 
Audubon,  the  naturalist,  463. 


Atlanta,  Sherman  at,  428. 

BACON'S  Rebellion,  171. 
Balboa  discovers  the  Pacific,  56. 
Baltimore  founded,  268. 
Baltimore,  Lord,  161,  218. 
Bank  of  North  America,  316. 

of  the  United  States,  370,  391. 

troubles,  393,  396. 
Bankrupt  laws,  396,  436. 
Banks  and  bills  of  credit,  244. 
Banks,  National,  425. 
Baptist  Indian  agencies,  445. 
Baptists  in  Rhode  Island,  145. 
Bartram,  the  botanist,  462. 
Benezet,  Anthony,  270. 
Bennington,  battle  of,  306. 
Bennington  settled,  259,  330. 
Berkeley  in  Virginia,  164,  168. 
Black  Hawk  war,  391. 
Blair,  commissary,  229. 
Boone,  Daniel,  296. 
Boston  Massacre,  292. 

Port  Bill,  293. 

settlement  of,  140. 

great  fire  at,  392. 

siege  of,  301. 
Braddock's  defeat,  275. 
Brainerd,  David  and  John,  263. 
Brandy  wine,  battle  of,  307. 
Brazil,  discovery  of,  45. 
Brazilian  coast,  the  French  on,  69. 
Breckenridge,  John  C.,  411,  414. 
British-Spanish  war  of  1739,  257. 
Brooklyn,  settlement  of,  127. 
Brown,  John,  raid  of,  414. 
Buchanan,  James,  411. 
Bull  Run  or  Manassas,  417,  422. 
Bunker  Hill,  battle  of,  301. 
Burgoyne's    surrender    at    Saratoga, 

307. 

Burlington  Woods,  treaty  in,  188. 
Burr,  Aaron,  340,  342,  345. 


40* 


473 


474 


INDEX. 


CABEZA  DE  VACA,  adventures  of,  61. 
Cabot,  John,  42. 
Cabot,  Sebastian,  42,  79. 
Calhoun,  John  C.,  386,  390. 
California,  emigration  to,  404. 

admitted  as  a  state,  408. 
California  coast,  Cabrillo  on  the,  83. 

Drake  on  the,  83. 

Canada  conquered  from  the  French, 
285. 

French  occupation  of,  106. 

rebellion  of  1837,  394. 
Cancello,  the  monk,  in  Florida,  66. 
Cape  Cod  discovered  by  Gosnold,  89. 
Caribs,  extinction  of  the,  58. 
Carolina  settled,  176. 
Cartier,  voyages  of,  47. 
Castin,  Baron,  of  Acadie,  221. 
Census  of  United  States,  464. 
Centennial  Celeb'ration,  472. 
Chambersburg,  burning  of,  428. 
Champlain  in  Canada,  107,  no. 

Lake,  battle  of,  364. 
Chancellorsville,  battle  of,  425. 
Charleston,  fire  of  1740,  258. 

settled,  181. 

sieges  of,  303,  426,  429. 
Charters,  colonial,  demanded,  208. 
Cherokees,  removal  of  the,  387. 
Cheyenne  war,  444. 
Chicago  founded,  392. 

fire,  436. 

Chickasaws,  French  war  with  the,  250. 
Chickasaws,  De  Soto  and  the,  64. 
Children  in  mills,  employment  of,  467. 
Chinese  in  the  United  States,  464. 
Choctaws,  39,  250,  389. 
Cincinnati  founded,  341. 
Civil  damage  acts,  451. 
Civil  War,  American,  416. 
Clay,  Henry,  369,  380,  390. 
Clay's  Omnibus  Bill,  408. 
Clayborne,  of  Kent  Island,  162,  165. 
Clinton,  De  Witt,  441. 
Coal  and  coal-oil  yield,  468. 
Colfax,  Schuyler,  436. 
Coligny,  the  Huguenot  chief,  68. 
Colleges  in  United  States,  440. 
Colonization  Society,  American,  369. 

English,  378. 
Colorado  admitted  as  a  state,  437. 

early  dwellers  in,  31. 
Columbus,  Christopher,  21. 
Compensated  emancipation,  411. 


Congregational  Indian  agencies,  445. 
Congfjegationalists    oppose     slavery, 

:  270. 
Connecticut,  settlement  of,  123,  127, 

133,  146,  197. 

Constitution  formed,  the,  323. 
Constitutional  government,  326. 
Corinth,  battle  of,  423. 
Cornplanter,  the  Seneca,  359. 
Coronado,  march  of,  61. 
Cortereal,  voyage  of,  45. 
Cortez  conquers  Mexico*,  54. 
Cotton  gin  invented,  466. 
Cotton  in  Virginia,  first,  lor. 
Cotton,  sea-island,  233. 

yield  of,  466. 

Credit  Mobilier  scheme,  471. 
Creek  war,  362. 
Creeks,  removal  of  the,  384. 
Cuba,  conquest  of,  28. 

discovery  of,  25. 
Culpeper  in  Virginia,  170,  174. 
Currency,  early  colonial,  151,  164. 

DACOTAHS,  account  of  the,  39. 

Dare,  Virginia,  88. 

Davis,  Jefferson,  415,  430. 

De  Ayllon's  voyage  for  slaves,  59. 

Decatur,  Stephen,  344,  369. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  304. 

Deerfield,  massacre  of,  235. 

De  Fuca,  Juan,  on  Oregon  coast,  83. 

De  Gourgues  in  Florida,  77. 

De  Kalb,  Baron,  314. 

Delawares,    tribe   of,   188,   214,   260, 

278,  280,  289. 
Delaware,  Lord,  96,  100. 
Delaware  organized,  219,  226. 
De  Monts  colonizes  Acadie,  107. 
_De  Soto,  Ferdinand,  63. 
Detroit  founded  by  the  French,  235. 
District  of  Columbia,  335. 
Douglas,  Stephen  A.,  409,  414. 
Drake,  Sir  Francis,  82,  87. 
Draper,  J.  W.  and  Henry,  461. 
Dred  Scott  decision,  411. 
Duelling,  343. 
Dunmore,  Lord,  295,  301. 
Dutch  Reformed  Indian  agencies,  445. 
in  Carolina,  182. 

EDUCATION,  438. 

compulsory,  467. 
Educational  fund  bill,  442. 


INDEX. 


475 


Edwards,  Jonathan,  263. 
Effingham,  governor  of  Virginia,  175, 

195- 

Eliot  and  the  Praying  Indians,  200. 
Emancipation,  compensated,  411. 

proclamation,  424. 
Embargo  Act,  347. 
Emigration  to  America,  causes  of,  465. 
Endicott,  John,  139,  148,  155. 
Episcopalian  Indian  agencies,  445. 
Established   religion   constitutionally 

forbidden,  328. 
Erie,  Lake,  battle  of,  361. 
Eutaw  Springs,  battle  of,  316. 

FACTORIES,  children  in,  467. 
Fernandez  discovers  Yucatan,  53. 
Fillmore,  Millard,  405,  408. 
Financial  troubles,  244,  320,  370,  393, 

472. 

Fires,  great,  392,  436. 
Five  Nations.     See  Iroquois. 
Fletcher,  the  royal  governor,  220,  224. 
Florida  admitted  as  a  state,  400. 

ceded  to  the  United  States,  373. 

discovered  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  52. 

interior,  57. 

Fox,  George,  in  America,  180,  199. 
Franklin,  Benjamin,  267,  270,  294. 

as  a  scientist,  460. 
Franklin's  negotiations,  297,  308,  318. 

plan  of  a  federal  Union,  274. 
Freedmen's  Bureau,  438. 
Fremont,  John  C.,  403,  418. 
French  and  English  colonies  at  war, 

221,  234,  265,  273. 
French  Neutrals  of  Acadie,  275. 

occupy  Canada,  106. 
Friends'  Indian  agencies,  445. 

Indian  policy,  442. 

in  Maryland  and  Va.,  168,  169. 

in  New  England,  persecution  of, 

*53- 

in  North  Carolina,  177,  179. 

in  West  Jersey,  187. 

prohibit  slavery,  270. 
Frobisher,  expeditions  of,  80. 
Frontenac,  gov.  of  Canada,  193,  222. 
Fugitive  slave  law,  408. 

GADSDEN  PURCHASE,  405. 
Gallatin,  Albert,  335,  366. 
Gama,  Vasco  da,  45. 
Geneva  Court  of  Arbitration,  454. 


Georgia  founded  by  Oglethorpe,  253. 
German  immigration,  216,  237,  465. 
Germantown,  battle  of,  307. 
Gettysburg,  battle  of,  425. 
Gilbert,  Humphrey,  voyages  of,  81. 
Gilbert,  Raleigh,  voyage  of,  90. 
Gnadenhutten,  massacre  at,  283. 
Gomez,  voyages  of,  59. 
Gorges,  Sir  Ferdinando,  90,  141. 
Gosnold,  Bartholomew,  voyage  of,  89. 
Grant,  General,  419,  426,  436. 
Great  awakening,  the,  256. 
Greenland,  discovery  of,  16. 
Grenville,  Sir  Richard,  at  Roanoke, 

85. 

Grijalva,  voyage  of,  53. 
Guadaloupe-Hidalgo,  treaty  of,  405. 
Guilford  Court-House,  battle  of,  316. 

HACKENSACKS,  massacre  of,  128. 
Halifax,  construction  of  Fort,  273. 
Hamilton,  Alexander,  328,  342. 
Hare,  Robert,  inventions  of,  461. 
Harrison,  General,  353,  358,  395. 
Hartford  Convention,  366. 
Hartford  settled,  123,  147. 
Harvard  College  founded,  150. 
Hawkins,  Sir  John,  75. 
Hayden,  F.  V.,  surveys  by,  31,  464. 
Hayti,  or  Hispaniola,  discovery  of,  25. 
Hennepin,  explorations  of,  193. 
Henry,  Patrick,  291. 
Henry,  Prince,  of  Portugal,  20. 
Hessians,  hiring  of  the,  302. 
Historical  study,  purposes  of,  u. 
Hopkins,  Samuel  (Dr.),  270. 
Hudson,  Henry,  118. 
Huguenots,  the,  67,  182. 
Hurons,  Champlain  assists  the,  no. 
dispersed  by  the  Iroquois,  116. 

ICELAND  and  the  Northmen,  14. 

Illinois  admitted,  374. 

Indian  policy,  new,  442. 

Indian  walk,  the,  260. 

Indiana  admitted  into  the  Union,  369. 

Indians  and  rum,  116,  119,  128,  189, 

202,  281,  285,  359,  435. 
North  American,  account  of,  34. 
Internal  improvements,  381. 
Intemperance.     See  Temperance 
Iowa  admitted  into  the  Union,  400. 
Iron  ore  yield,  468. 
Iroquois,  account  of  the,  38. 


476 


INDEX. 


Iroquois  disperse  the  Hurons,  116. 

French  wars  with  the,  no,  195. 

treaties,  195,  226,  247,  265,  274, 

281. 
Isles  of  Shoals,  107. 

JACKSON,  ANDREW,  362,  367   373 
380. 

elected  president,  386. 
Jamaica,  Columbus  wrecked  on,  28. 
Jamestown  burnt,  173. 

founded,  93. 
Jefferson,  Thomas,  304,  328,  337. 

president,  340,  345. 

death  of,  383. 
Jesuits  in  New  France,  109,  114,  190. 

in  Paraguay,  115. 

not  tolerated  in  New  England, 

153- 
Johnson,  Andrew,    419,  428,  433. 

Sir  William,  267,  277,  288. 
Joliet  on  the  Mississippi,  192. 
Jones,  John  Paul,  312. 

KANSAS  admitted,  425. 

border  troubles,  410. 
Kansas-Nebraska  bill,  409. 
Keith,  George,  219. 
Kentucky  admitted,  330. 

Boone  in,  296. 
Kidd,  Captain,  225. 
Kieft's  Indian  wars,  126. 
King,  Clarence,  survey  by,  464. 
King  Philip's  war,  202. 
King's  Mountain,  battle  of,  314. 
Kosciusko,  306. 

LABRADOR  discovered  by  the  Cabots, 

43- 

Lafayette,  Marquis  de,  307,  379. 
La  Salle,  voyages  of,  193. 
Laudonniere  in  Florida,  73. 
Law  of  nations,  codification  of,  458. 
Law's  Mississippi  Company,  242. 
Lay,  Benjamin,  270. 
Lee,  Robert  E.,  421,  425,  427,  430. 
Leisler-Milbourne  faction,  223.  • 
Lescarbot  in  Acadie,  108. 
Lewis  and  Clarke,  explorations  of, 

401. 

Lexington,  battle  of,  300. 
Liberia,  colonization  of,  369. 
Lincoln,  Abraham,  414,  424,  428. 
assassination  of,  430. 


Locke's  Carolina  constitution,  178. 
Logan  and  Dunmore's  war,  295. 
Lookout  Mountain,  battle  of,  426. 
Louisburg,  sieges  of,  266,  286. 
Louisiana,  acquisition  of,  341. 

named  by  La. Salle,  194. 

settled  by  the  French,  234. 
Louisville  founded,  330. 
Lundy's  Lane,  battle  of,  364. 

MADISON,  JAMES,  340,  352,  358. 
Madoc,  voyages  of,  17. 
Magellan,  voyage  of,  60. 
Maine  settled,  142,  187,  206,  208. 

admitted  into  the  Union,  374. 

boundary,  397. 

Liquor  Law,  450. 
Mann,  Horace,  440. 
Marquette  on  the  Mississippi,  192. 
Maryland,  settlement  of,  161,  228. 

boundary,  217,  294. 
Mason  and  Gorges,  141. 
Mason  andSlidell,  capture  of,  419. 
Mason 's-and-Dixon's  line,  294. 
Massachusetts  Bay  colony,  139. 
McClellan,  General,  418,  421. 
Menendez  in  Florida,  75. 
Mennonites  in  Pennsylvania,  267. 

coming  of  the,  465. 
Merrimack  and  Monitor,  420. 
Meteoric  shower  of  1832,  391. 
Methodist  Indian  agencies,  445. 
Mexico,  Spanish  conquest  of,  54. 

war  with,  400. 
Miami  war,  332. 

Michigan  admitted  as  a  state,  394. 
Minnesota  admitted,  411. 
Mississippi  admitted,  374. 

Company,  Law's,  242. 

discovery  of  the,  63,  192. 

Territory,  332. 

Missouri  compromise,  379,  405. 
Mobile  located  by  the  French,  235. 
Modocs,  the,  447. 
Molasses  act,  272. 
Monmouth  C.  H.,  battle  of,  308. 
Monroe,  James,  350,  368. 

elected  president,  371. 

death  of,  384. 

Doctrine,  379. 

Mont  Desert  island,  107,  109. 
Montcalm,  Marquis  of,  279,  286. 
Montreal  named,  49. 
Moravian  Indian  missions,  263,  280. 


INDEX. 


477 


Moravians  settle  Bethlehem,  259. 

settle  in  Georgia,  255. 
Morris,  Robert,  316. 
Mound-Builders,  29. 

NARVAEZ  in  Florida,  60. 
Natchez  tribe,  account  of  the,  39. 

exterminated,  249. 
National  Banks  organized,  425. 
National  Debt,  432. 
Navigation  acts,  168,  180,  225. 
Nebraska  admitted,  436. 
Nevada  admitted,  425. 
New  Albion,  Ployden's,  186. 
New  England,  settlement  of,  135. 
Newfoundland,  discovery  of,  16,  45. 

early  fisheries  of,  81. 
New  France,  settlement  of,  47. 
New  Hampshire  settled,  141,  208,  225, 
247,  259. 

Indian  wars  in,  207,  247. 

grants,  295,  330. 
New  Haven  founded,  131,  147. 

merged  with  Connecticut,  198. 
New  Jersey  settled,  186. 
New  Jersey  Indian  missions,  263. 
New  Mexico,  early  explorations  in,  61, 
82. 

ceded  to  the  U.  S.,  403. 
New  Netherland,  settlement  of,  118, 

185. 
New  Orleans  founded,  243. 

battle  of,  367. 

taken  by  Unionists,  423. 
New  Sweden,  124,  132,  167,  214. 
New  York  settled,  118,  133,  185. 

great  fire  at,  392. 

Washington  at,  303,  328. 
Nicholson,  Francis,  229,  236,  244. 
Norridgewock  war,  245. 
North  Carolina  settled,  176,  269. 

regulators,  296. 
North-Eastern  boundary,  396. 
North-Western  boundary,  401. 
North-West  Territory,  332.-. 
Northmen's  discovery  of  America,  14. 
Nova  Scotia  grant,  143. 
Nova  Scotia,  Northmen  visit,  16. 
Nullification,  390. 

OGLETHORPE,  founder  of  Georgia, 

254- 

Ohio  admitted  into  the  Union,  341. 
company,  273. 


Ohio  territory,  332. 
Oregon  boundary,  401. 

admitted  into  the  Union,  411. 

PACIFIC  railroads,  471. 

Paine,  Thomas,  304,  320. 

Papal  claim  to  the  New  World,  41. 

Paris,  Peace  of  (1763),  288. 

Party  patronage,  340,  389. 

Pastorius,  the  protest  of,  270. 

Patents,  issues  of,  468. 

Paxton  Boys,  282. 

Peabody  Fund,  439. 

Peace,  arbitration  and,  454. 

Penn,  William,  and  New  Jersey,  187. 

in  Pennsylvania,  210,  225. 
Penn's  essay  on  Arbitration,  457. 
Pennsylvania,  settlement  of,  210. 

opposed  to  war,  224,  236,  267. 
Peonage  in  Virginia,  104. 
Pequod  war,  148. 
Peru,  conquest  of,  57. 
Philadelphia  founded  by  Penn,  215. 

capital  removed  from,  339. 

great  fire  at,  392. 
Phipps,  Sir  William,  223,  227. 
Phonograph,  Edison's,  469. 
Physical  aspect  of  the  country,  13. 
Pierce,  Franklin,  president,  409. 
Pilgrims,  landing  of  the,  137. 
Pilgrims,  compact  of  the,  327. 
Pineda  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  55. 
Piracy  suppressed,  241,  379. 
Pittsburg  founded,  287. 
Pizarro  conquers  Peru,  57. 
Pocahontas,  95,  99. 
Polk,  James  K.,  president,  400. 
Ponce  de  Leon,  invader  of  Florida,  52. 
Pontiac,  conspiracy  of,  282,  289. 
Popham's  voyage  to  Maine,  90. 
Population,  statistics  of,  464. 
Portland,  great  fire  at,  392. 
Port  Royal  (N.  S.),  107,  109,  236. 

(S.  C  ),  named  by  Ribault,  71. 
Portuguese  explorations,  45. 
Presbyterian  Indian  agencies,  445. 
Presbyterians  settle  East  Jersey,  190. 
Pring,  Michael,  voyage  of,  89. 
Printing-press  in  Massachusetts,  150. 

in  Virginia,  forbidden,  175. 
Providence  founded,  145. 
Public  school  system,  440. 
Pueblos,  or  Village  Indians,  40. 
Pulaski,  Count,  307,  311. 


478 


INDEX. 


Puritans,  arrival  of  the,  139. 
banish  Roger  Williams,  144. 
persecute  Quakers,  153. 
favor  free  schools,  440. 
favor  republicanism,  326. 

QUAKERS.    See  Friends. 
Quebec  founded  by  Champlain,  no. 
taken  from  the  French,  113,  287. 
Queenstown,  battle  of,  352. 

RAILROADS,  first  American,  470. 
Raleigh  and  Newfoundland  expedi 
tions,  81. 

and  Roanoke  settlements,  84. 
Recollets  in  New  France,  112,  191, 

193- 

Reconstruction  of  the  South,  433. 
Redemptioners,  271. 
Regulators  in  Jvforth  Carolina,  296. 
Red  Jacket,  the  Seneca,  359. 
Regicides  in  New  England,  197. 
Rhode  Island,  143,  198,  225. 

religious  liberty  in,  198,  327. 

Suffragists,  399. 

Ribault,  expeditions  of,  70,  75,  76. 
Rice  introduced  into  South  Carolina, 

233- 

Richmond,    advances    oh,   417,  421, 
425,  427- 

settled,  97. 

Right  of  search,  335,  349. 
Rittenhouse,  David,  461. 
Roberval,  viceroy  of  New  France,  50. 
Roman  Catholic  Indian  agencies,  445. 
Romanists  and  school  funds,  441. 

found  Maryland,  161. 
Rum  prohibited  in  Georgia,  256. 

See  Temperance  question  and  In 
dians  and  rum. 
Ryswick,  peace  of,  224. 

SABLE  ISLANDERS,  106. 

Salem  witchcraft,  226. 

San  Francisco  harbor  named,  83. 

Santander's  colonization  plan,  66. 

Saratoga,  Burgoyne's  defeat  at,  307. 

Savannah  founded,  255. 

Science  in  America,  460. 

Schwenckfelders,  the,  268. 

Scott,  Winfield,  364,  402,  405,  418. 

Sergeant  and  the  Housatonics,  263. 

Secession  of  the  South,  415. 

Seminoles,  the,  233,  372,  392. 


Seven  Cities  of  Cibola,  61. 
Seward,  Secretary,  429,  430. 
Sewing-machine,  invention  of,  467. 
Shackamaxon,  treaty  at,  214. 
Shays'  Rebellion,  321. 
Shenandoah  Valley  raids,  427,  428. 
Sherman's  "  march  to  the  sea,"  428. 
Silliman,  Benjamin,  461. 
Sioux,  account  of  the,  39. 
Six  Nations.     See  Iroquois. 
Slave  trade,  African,  252. 

Newport  and  the,  270. 

prohibited,  374,  378,  397. 
Slaves,  English  decisions  as  to,  295. 
Slavery  agitation,  374,  406. 

and  the  Constitution,  324. 

at  St..  Augustine,  76. 

in  Carolina,  182,  240. 

in  Georgia,  257. 

in  New  York,  132. 

in  San  Domingo,  58. 

introduced  by  Columbus,  27. 

in  Virginia,  103,  170. 

prohibited  by  Congregationalists 

and  Friends,  270. 
Smith,  John,  Captain,  93,  135. 
Smithsonian  Institution,  463. 
South  Carolina  settled,  181. 
Spanish  conquests  in  America,  51. 
Spottswood,    governor    of   Virginia, 

239,  241.  259. 
Stamp  Act,  291. 
Standish,  Miles,  138. 
States,  new,  formation  of,  332. 
Statistics  of  progress,  464. 
St.  Augustine  founded,  76. 
Steamboats  in  America,  first,  470. 
Stephens,  Alexander  H.,  415,  429. 
Steuben,  Baron,  308. 
Sterling,  Earl  of,  127,  142,  143. 
St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of,  explored,  45. 

Cartier  ascends  the,  47. 
St.  Louis  founded,  374. 
Stuyvesant,  Peter,  131, 
Sugar-cane  introduced,  342. 
Sumner  and  Brooks,  410. 
Swedes  in  Delaware,  124,  132,  214. 

TARIFF,  385,  390. 

Taylor,  General,  400,  405. 

Tea  refused  by  the  Americans,  293. 

Tecumseh,  353,  358,  361. 

Telegraph,  invention  of  the,  469. 

Telephone,  invention  of  the,  469. 


INDEX. 


479 


Temperance  question,  the,  449. 
Tennessee  admitted,  332. 

early  settlements  in,  296. 

Ft.  Loudoun  in,  279. 
Territories,  erection  of,  332. 

survey  of  the,  464. 
Texas,  annexation  of,  397. 
Tippecanoe,  battle  of,  354. 
Tobacco  crop  in  1870,  466. 

discovered  in  Carolina,  86. 

in  Virginia  and   Maryland,  99, 

163. 

Trenton,  battle  of,  305. 
Tripoli,  war  with,  344. 
Tuscaroras  join  the  Iroquois,  238. 
Tyler,  John,  395. 

UNITED     BRETHREN'S     Greenland 

mission,  18. 

colonies  of  New  England,  150. 
Utah  organized  as. a  territory,  408. 
Utrecht,  peace  of,  237. 

VAN  BUREN,  MARTIN,  393. 
Van  Twiller,  Walter,  125. 
Vane,  Sir  Henry,  141,  152. 
Velasquez  in  Cuba,  28,  54. 
Vermont  settled,  247,  295. 

declares  its  independence,  323. 

admitted  as  a  state,  330. 
Verrazzani,  discoveries  of,  46. 
Vespucci,  Amerigo,  45. 
Vicksburg,  siege  of,  426. 
Villegagnon,  Nicholas  de,  67. 
Vincennes  settled,  251. 
Virginia,  colonization  of,  91. 

Indian  massacres,  102,  165. 

so  called  by  Raleigh,  85. 

society,  organization  of,  169. 

under  Andros,  229. 

under  Berkeley,  168, 
Vulcanization  of  India-rubber,  468. 

WALDRON  and  the  Indians,  207,  221. 
War,  cost,  206,  238, 319,  403, 431,  443. 


War,  immigration  resulting  from,  465. 

of  the  Revolution,  300. 

of  1812,  355. 

of  the  Rebellion,  416. 

Polynesians  forsake,  170. 

provoked  by  the  press,  420. 
Washington   before  the    Revolution, 
274,  275,  287. 

declared  president,  328,  332. 

retires  to  Mount  Vernon,  318. 

death  of,  339. 
Washington  City  laid  out,  339. 

burnt  (1814),  365. 

treaty  of,  454. 

Wayne,  Anthony,  312,  333. 
Webster,  Daniel,  390,  396. 
Wesleys  in  Georgia,  255. 
West  Virginia  admitted,  425. 
West  Indies  named  by  Columbus,  41. 
Weymouth,  voyage  of,  90. 
Whiskey  Insurrection,  334. 
Whitefield  in  America,  256. 
White  Plains,  battle  of,  305. 
Wilkes  exploring  expedition,  395. 
William  and  Mary  College,  229. 
Williams,  Roger,  143,  149,  152,  198. 
Wilmot  Proviso,  404. 
Wilson,  the  naturalist,  462. 
Wilson,  vice-president,  436,  437. 
Winthrop  of  Connecticut,  146,  197. 

of  Massachusetts,  139. 
Wisconsin  admitted,  405. 
Wolfe,  General,  286,  287. 
Women's  temperance  movement,  452. 
Woolman  and  slavery,  270,  271. 
Wyoming,  massacre  of,  309. 

YALE  COLLEGE  founded,  440. 
Yeamans,  Sir  John,  177,  181. 
Yellowstone  National  Park,  464. 
Yorktown,  Cornwallis  at,  317. 
Yucatan  coast  explored,  53. 

ZEISBERGER,  DAVID,  280. 
Zeni,  voyages  of  the,  18. 


THE    END. 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


{    UNIV 

\ 

%^U 


\J 


